Meiner Idee nach ist Energie die erste und einzige Tugend des Menschen=--In my regard energy is the first and only virtue of man.
Blosse Intelligenz ohne correspondirende Energie des Wollens ist ein blankes Schwert in der Scheide, verachtlich, wenn es nie und nimmer gezuckt wird=--Mere intelligence without corresponding energy of the will is a polished sword in its scabbard, contemptible, if it is never drawn forth.
La condition par excellence de la vie, de la sante et de la force chez l'etre organise, est l'action. C'est par l'action qu'il developpe ses facultes, qu'il en augmente l'energie, et qu'il atteint la plenitude de sa destinee=--The chief condition on which depends the life, health, and vigour of an organised being is action. It is by action that it develops its faculties, that it increases its energy, and that it attains to the fulfilment of its destiny.
The Saktas, as we have seen, are worshippers of the _sakti_, or the female principle as a primary factor in the creation and reproduction of the universe. And as each of the principal gods is supposed to have associated with him his own particular _sakti_, as an indispensable complement enabling him to properly perform his cosmic functions, adherents of this persuasion might be expected to be recruited from all sects. To a certain extent this is indeed the case; but though Vaishnavism, and especially the Krishna creed, with its luxuriant growth of erotic legends, might have seemed peculiarly favourable to a development in this direction, it is practically only in connexion with the Saiva system that an independent cult of the female principle has been developed; whilst in other sects--and, indeed, in the ordinary Saiva cult as well--such worship, even where it is at all prominent, is combined with, and subordinated to, that of the male principle. What has made this cult attach itself more especially to the Saiva creed is doubtless the character of Siva as the type of reproductive power, in addition to his function as destroyer which, as we shall see, is likewise reflected in some of the forms of his Sakti. The theory of the god and his Sakti as cosmic principles is perhaps already foreshadowed in the Vedic couple of Heaven and Earth, whilst in the speculative treatises of the later Vedic period, as well as in the post-Vedic Brahmanical writings, the assumption of the self-existent being dividing himself into a male and a female half usually forms the starting-point of cosmic evolution.[7] In the later Saiva mythology this theory finds its artistic representation in Siva's androgynous form of Ardha-narisa, or "half-woman-lord," typifying the union of the male and female energies; the male half in this form of the deity occupying the right-hand, and the female the left-hand side. In accordance with this type of productive energy, the Saktas divide themselves into two distinct groups, according to whether they attach the greater importance to the male or to the female principle; viz. the _Dakshinacharis_, or "right-hand-observers" (also called _Dak-shina-margis_, or followers "of the right-hand path"), and the _Vamacharis_, or "left-hand-observers" (or _Vama-margis_, followers "of the left path"). Though some of the Puranas, the chief repositories of sectarian doctrines, enter largely into Sakta topics, it is only in the numerous Tantras that these are fully and systematically developed. In these works, almost invariably composed in the form of a colloquy, Siva, as a rule, in answer to questions asked by his consort Parvati, unfolds the mysteries of this occult creed. Entry: A
ELECTROSTATICS ELTVILLE ELECTROTHERAPEUTICS ELTZ ELECTROTYPING ELVAS ELECTRUM, ELECTRON ELVEY, SIR GEORGE JOB ELEGIT ELVIRA, SYNOD OF ELEGY EL WAD ELEMENT ELWOOD ELEMI ELY, RICHARD THEODORE ELEPHANT ELY ELEPHANTA ISLE ELYOT, SIR THOMAS ELEPHANTIASIS ELYRIA ELEPHANT'S-FOOT ELYSIUM ELETS ELZE, KARL ELEUSIS ELZEVIR ELEUTHERIUS EMANATION ELEUTHEROPOLIS EMANUEL I. ELEVATORS EMBALMING ELF EMBANKMENT ELGAR, SIR EDWARD EMBARGO ELGIN (Illinois, U.S.A.) EMBASSY ELGIN (Scotland) EMBER DAYS and EMBER WEEKS ELGIN AND KINCARDINE, EARLS OF EMBEZZLEMENT ELGINSHIRE EMBLEM ELGON EMBLEMENTS ELI EMBOSSING ELIAS EMBRACERY ELIAS, JOHN EMBRASURE ELIAS LEVITA EMBROIDERY ELIE EMBRUN ÉLIE DE BEAUMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE EMBRYOLOGY ELIJAH EMDEN ELIJAH WILNA EMERALD ELIOT, CHARLES WILLIAM ÉMERIC-DAVID, TOUSSAINT-BERNARD ELIOT, GEORGE EMERITUS ELIOT, SIR JOHN EMERSON, RALPH WALDO ELIOT, JOHN EMERSON, WILLIAM ELIS (district of Greece) EMERY ELIS (city of Greece) EMETICS ELIS, PHILOSOPHICAL SCHOOL OF EMEU ELISAVETGRAD EMIGRATION ELISAVETPOL (Russian government) EMILIA ELISAVETPOL (Russian town) EMINENCE ELISHA EMINENT DOMAIN ELISHA BEN ABUYAH EMINESCU, MICHAIL ELIXIR EMIN PASHA ELIZABETH (queen of England) EMLYN, THOMAS ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] EMMANUEL ELIZABETH [AMÉLIE EUGÉNIE] EMMANUEL PHILIBERT ELIZABETH (Frederick V. consort) EMMAUS ELIZABETH [PAULINE OTTILIE] EMMENDINGEN ELIZABETH (Charles I. daughter) EMMERICH ELIZABETH (Marie Hélène) EMMET, ROBERT ELIZABETH, SAINT EMMET, THOMAS ADDIS ELIZABETH (New Jersey, U.S.A.) EMMETT, DANIEL DECATUR ELIZABETHAN STYLE EMMITSBURG ELIZABETH CITY EMMIUS, UBBO ELK EMMONS, EBENEZER ELKHART EMMONS, NATHANAEL ELKINGTON, GEORGE RICHARDS EMPEDOCLES ELLA EMPEROR ELLAND EMPHYSEMA ELLENBOROUGH, EDWARD LAW (judge) EMPIRE ELLENBOROUGH, EDWARD LAW (Earl) EMPIRICISM ELLERY, WILLIAM EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY & COMPENSATION ELLESMERE, FRANCIS EGERTON EMPOLI ELLESMERE (town in England) EMPORIA ELLICE (LAGOON) ISLANDS EMPORIUM ELLICHPUR EMPSON, SIR RICHARD ELLIOTSON, JOHN EMPYEMA ELLIOTT, EBENEZER EMPYREAN ELLIPSE EMS (river of Germany) ELLIPSOID EMS (town of Germany) ELLIPTICITY EMSER, JEROME ELLIS, ALEXANDER JOHN ENAMEL ELLIS, GEORGE ENCAENIA ELLIS, SIR HENRY ENCAUSTIC PAINTING ELLIS, ROBINSON ENCEINTE ELLIS, WILLIAM ENCINA, JUAN DEL ELLISTON, ROBERT WILLIAM ENCKE, JOHANN FRANZ ELLORA ENCLAVE ELLORE ENCOIGNURE ELLSWORTH, OLIVER ENCYCLICAL ELLSWORTH ENCYCLOPAEDIA ELLWANGEN ENDECOTT, JOHN ELLWOOD, THOMAS ENDIVE ELM ENDOEUS ELMACIN, GEORGE ENDOGAMY ELMALI ENDOR ELMES, HARVEY LONSDALE ENDOSPORA ELMES, JAMES ENDYMION ELMHAM, THOMAS ENERGETICS ELMINA ENERGICI ELMIRA ENERGY ELMSHORN ENFANTIN, BARTHÉLEMY PROSPER ELMSLEY, PETER ENFIDAVILLE ELNE ENFIELD (Connecticut, U.S.A.) EL OBEID ENFIELD (England) ELOI, SAINT ENFILADE ELONGATION ENGADINE EL PASO ENGAGED COLUMN ELPHINSTONE, MOUNTSTUART ENGEL, ERNST ELPHINSTONE, WILLIAM ENGEL, JOHANN JAKOB EL RENO ENGELBERG ELSFLETH ENGELBRECHTSDATTER, DORTHE ELSINORE ENGELHARDT, JOHANN GEORG VEIT ELSSLER, FANNY ENGHIEN, LOUIS ANTOINE HENRI ELSTER (rivers of Germany) ENGHIEN ELSTER (spa of Germany) ENGINE ELSWICK ENGINEERING EL TEB ENGINEERS, MILITARY ELTON, CHARLES ISAAC ENGIS Entry: ELECTROSTATICS
At Munich he devoted himself with energy to the special work of his chair, and, resisting the temptation to identify himself with politics, published _Allgemeines Staatsrecht_ (1851-1852); _Lehre vom modernen Staat_ (1875-1876); and, in conjunction with Karl Ludwig Theodor Brater (1819-1869), _Deutsches Staats-wörterbuch_ (II vols., 1857-1870: abridged by Edgar Loening in 3 vols., 1869-1875). Meanwhile he had assiduously worked at his code for the canton of Zürich, _Privatrechtliches Gesetzbuch für den Kanton Zürich_ (4 vols., 1854-1856), a work which was much praised at the time, and which, particularly the section devoted to contracts, served as a model for codes both in Switzerland and other countries. In 1861 Bluntschli received a call to Heidelberg as professor of constitutional law (Staatsrecht), where he again entered the political arena, endeavouring in his _Geschichte des allgemeinen Staatsrechts und der Politik_ (1864) "to stimulate," as he said, "the political consciousness of the German people, to cleanse it of prejudices and to further it intellectually." In his new home, Baden, he devoted his energies and political influence, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, towards keeping the country neutral. From this time Bluntschli became active in the field of international law, and his fame as a jurist belongs rather to this province than to that of constitutional law. His _Das moderne Kriegsrecht_ (1866); _Das moderns Völkerrecht_ (1868), and _Das Beuterecht im Krieg_ (1878) are likely to remain invaluable text-books in this branch of the science of jurisprudence. He also wrote a pamphlet on the "Alabama" case. Entry: BLUNTSCHLI
The main principles of the Comtian system are derived from the _Positive Polity_ and from two other works,--the _Positivist Catechism: a Summary Exposition of the Universal Religion, in Twelve Dialogues between a Woman and a Priest of Humanity_; and, second, _The Subjective Synthesis_ (1856), which is the first and only volume of a work upon mathematics announced at the end of the _Positive Philosophy_. The system for which the _Positive Philosophy_ is alleged to have been the scientific preparation contains a Polity and a Religion; a complete arrangement of life in all its aspects, giving a wider sphere to Intellect, Energy and Feeling than could be found in any of the previous organic types,--Greek, Roman or Catholic-feudal. Comte's immense superiority over such prae-Revolutionary utopians as the Abbé Saint Pierre, no less than over the group of post-revolutionary Utopians, is especially visible in this firm grasp of the cardinal truth that the improvement of the social organism can only be effected by a moral development, and never by any changes in mere political mechanism, or any violences in the way of an artificial redistribution of wealth. A moral transformation must precede any real advance. The aim, both in public and private life, is to secure to the utmost possible extent the victory of the social feeling over self-love, or Altruism over Egoism.[1] This is the key to the regeneration of social existence, as it is the key to that unity of individual life which makes all our energies converge freely and without wasteful friction towards a common end. What are the instruments for securing the preponderance of Altruism? Clearly they must work from the strongest element in human nature, and this element is Feeling or the Heart. Under the Catholic system the supremacy of Feeling was abused, and the Intellect was made its slave. Then followed a revolt of Intellect against Sentiment. The business of the new system will be to bring back the Intellect into a condition, not of slavery, but of willing ministry to the Feelings. The subordination never was, and never will be, effected except by means of a religion, and a religion, to be final, must include a harmonious synthesis of all our conceptions of the external order of the universe. The characteristic basis of a religion is the existence of a Power without us, so superior to ourselves as to command the complete submission of our whole life. This basis is to be found in the Positive stage, in Humanity, past, present and to come, conceived as the Great Being. Entry: J
COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. The earliest inventors of spinning machinery (see SPINNING) directed their energies chiefly to the improvement of the final stage of the operation, but no sooner were these machines put to practical use than it became apparent that success depended upon mechanically conducting the operations preliminary to spinning. Later inventors were, therefore, called upon not only to improve the inventions of their predecessors, but to devise machinery for preparing the fibres to be spun. Arkwright quickly perceived the importance of this aspect of the problem, and he devoted even more energy to it than to the invention with which his name is more intimately associated. But, given a complete series of machines for preparing and spinning, the cotton industry (see COTTON MANUFACTURE) must have remained unprogressive without the co-operation of cotton growers, for by the then existing methods of separating cotton lint from seed it would have been impossible to provide an adequate supply of raw material. By inventing the saw gin, Eli Whitney, an American, in the year 1792, did for cotton planters what Paul, Arkwright, Crompton, Cartwright, Watt and others did for textile manufacturers, for he provided them with the means for increasing their output almost indefinitely. Entry: COTTON
In the advancement of almost every branch of pure mathematics Lagrange took a conspicuous part. The calculus of variations is indissolubly associated with his name. In the theory of numbers he furnished solutions of many of P. Fermat's theorems, and added some of his own. In algebra he discovered the method of approximating to the real roots of an equation by means of continued fractions, and imagined a general process of solving algebraical equations of every degree. The method indeed fails for equations of an order above the fourth, because it then involves the solution of an equation of higher dimensions than they proposed. Yet it possesses the great and characteristic merit of generalizing the solutions of his predecessors, exhibiting them all as modifications of one principle. To Lagrange, perhaps more than to any other, the theory of differential equations is indebted for its position as a science, rather than a collection of ingenious artifices for the solution of particular problems. To the calculus of finite differences he contributed the beautiful formula of interpolation which bears his name; although substantially the same result seems to have been previously obtained by Euler. But it was in the application to mechanical questions of the instrument which he thus helped to form that his singular merit lay. It was his just boast to have transformed mechanics (defined by him as a "geometry of four dimensions") into a branch of analysis, and to have exhibited the so-called mechanical "principles" as simple results of the calculus. The method of "generalized coordinates," as it is now called, by which he attained this result, is the most brilliant achievement of the analytical method. Instead of following the motion of each individual part of a material system, he showed that, if we determine its configuration by a sufficient number of variables, whose number is that of the degrees of freedom to move (there being as many equations as the system has degrees of freedom), the kinetic and potential energies of the system can be expressed in terms of these, and the differential equations of motion thence deduced by simple differentiation. Besides this most important contribution to the general fabric of dynamical science, we owe to Lagrange several minor theorems of great elegance,--among which may be mentioned his theorem that the kinetic energy imparted by given impulses to a material system under given constraints is a maximum. To this entire branch of knowledge, in short, he successfully imparted that character of generality and completeness towards which his labours invariably tended. Entry: A
The social aspect of Greek life henceforward becomes its most attractive feature. After a long period of storm and stress, the European Hellenes had relapsed into a quiet and resigned frame of mind which stands in sharp contrast on the one hand with the energy and ability, and on the other with the vulgar intriguing of their Asiatic kinsmen. Seeing no future before them, the inhabitants were content to dwell in contemplation amid the glories of the past. National pride was fostered by the undisguised respect with which the leading Romans of the age treated Hellenic culture. And although this sentiment could degenerate into antiquarian pedantry and vanity, such as finds its climax in the diatribes of Apollonius of Tyana against the "barbarians," it prevented the nation from sinking into some of the worst vices of the age. A healthy social tone repressed extravagant luxury and the ostentatious display of wealth, and good taste long checked the spread of gladiatorial contests beyond the Italian community of Corinth. The most widespread abuse of that period, the adulation and adoration of emperors, was indeed introduced into European Greece and formed an essential feature of the proceedings at the Delphic amphictyony, but it never absorbed the energies of the people in the same way as it did in Asia. In order to perpetuate their old culture, the Greeks continued to set great store by classical education, and in Athens they possessed an academic centre which gradually became the chief university of the Roman empire. The highest representatives of this type of old-world refinement are to be found in Dio Chrysostom and especially in Plutarch of Chaeroneia (q.v.). Entry: I
The Allies disposed in all of 66,000 men around the threatened fortress, but 26,000 of these were actually employed in the siege, and the remainder, forming the covering army, extended in an enormous semicircle of posts facing west, south and east. Thus the Republicans, as before, had two men to one at the point of contact (44,000 against 21,000), but so formidable was the discipline and steadiness of manoeuvre of the old armies that the chances were considered as no more than "rather in favour" of the French. Not that these chances were seriously weighed before engaging. The generals might squander their energies in the council chamber on plans of sieges and expeditions, but in the field they were glad enough to seize the opportunity of a battle which they were not skilful enough to compel. It took place on the 15th and 16th of October, and though the allied right and centre held their ground, on their left the plateau of Wattignies (q.v.), from which the battle derives its name, was stormed on the second day, Carnot, Jourdan and the representatives leading the columns in person. Coburg indeed retired in unbroken order, added to which the Maubeuge garrison had failed to co-operate with their rescuers by a sortie,[5] and the duke of York had hurried up with all the men he could spare from the Flanders cordon. But the Dutch generals refused to advance beyond the Sambre, and Coburg broke up the siege of Maubeuge and retired whence he had come, while Jourdan, so far from pressing forward, was anxiously awaiting a counter-attack, and entrenching himself with all possible energy. So ended the episode of Wattignies, which, alike in its general outline and in its details, gives a perfect picture of the character, at once intense and spasmodic, of the "New French" warfare in the days of the Terror. Entry: CAMPAIGNS
Harmahib appears to have legitimated his rule by marriage to a royal princess, but it is probable that Rameses I., who succeeded as founder of the XIXth Dynasty, was not closely related to him. Rameses in his brief reign of two years planned and began the great colonnaded hall of Karnak, proving that he was a man of great ideas, though probably too old to carry them out; this task he left to his son Seti I., who reigned one year with his father and on the latter's death was ready at once to subdue the Bedouin Shasu, who had invaded Palestine and withheld all tribute. This task was quickly accomplished and Seti pushed onward to the Lebanon. Here cedars were felled for him by the Syrian princes, and the Phoenicians paid homage before he returned home in triumph. The Libyans had also to be dealt with, and afterwards Seti advanced again through Palestine, ravaged the land of the Amorites and came into conflict with the Hittites. The latter, however, were now firmly established in the Orontes valley, and a treaty with Mutallu, the king of Kheta, reigning far away in Cappadocia, probably ended the wars of Seti. In his ninth year he turned his attention to the gold mines in the eastern desert of Nubia and improved the road thither. Meanwhile the great work at Karnak projected by his father was going forward, and throughout Egypt the injuries done to the monuments by Akhenaton were thoroughly repaired; the erased inscriptions and figures were restored, not without many blunders. Seti's temple at Abydos and his galleried tomb in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings stand out as the most splendid examples of their kind in design and in decoration. Rameses II. succeeded at an early age and reigned sixty-seven years, during which he finished much that was begun by Seti and filled all Egypt and Nubia with his own monuments, some of them beautiful, but most, necessarily entrusted to inferior workmen, of coarse execution. The excavation of the rock temple of Abu Simbel and the completion of the great hall of Karnak were his greatest achievements in architecture. His wars began in his second year, their field comprising the Nubians, the Libyans, the Syrians and the Hittites. In his fifth year, near Kadesh on the Orontes, his army was caught unprepared and divided by a strong force of chariots of the Hittites and their allies, and Rameses himself was placed in the most imminent danger; but through his personal courage the enemy was kept at bay till reinforcements came up and turned the disaster into a victory. The incidents of this episode were a favourite subject in the sculptures of his temples, where their representation was accompanied by a poetical version of the affair and other explanatory inscriptions. Kadesh, however, was not captured, and after further contests, in his twenty-first year Rameses and the Hittite king Khattusil (Kheta-sar) made peace, with a defensive alliance against foreign aggression and internal revolt (see HITTITES). Thanks to Winckler's discoveries, the cuneiform text of this treaty from Boghaz Keui can now be compared with the hieroglyphic text at Karnak. In the thirty-fourth year, c. 1250 B.C., Khattusil with his friend or subject the king of Kode came from his distant capital to see the wonders of Egypt in person, bringing one of his daughters to be wife of the splendid Pharaoh. Rameses II. paid much attention to the Delta, which had been neglected until the days of Seti I., and resided there constantly; the temple of Tanis must have been greatly enlarged and adorned by him; a colossus of the king placed here was over 90 ft. in height, exceeding in scale even the greatest of the Theban colossi which he had erected in his mortuary temple of the Ramesseum. Towards the end of the long reign the vigilance and energy of the old king diminished. The military spirit awakened in the struggle with the Hyksos had again departed from the Egyptian nation; mercenaries from the Sudan, from Libya and from the northern nations supplied the armies, while foreigners settled in the rich lands of the Delta and harried the coasts. It was a time too when the movements of the nations that so frequently occurred in the ancient world were about to be particularly active. Mineptah, c. 1225 B.C., succeeding his father Rameses II., had to fight many battles for the preservation of his kingdom and empire. Apparently most of the fighting was finished by the fifth year of his reign; in his mortuary temple at Thebes he set up a stela of that date recording a great victory over the Libyan immigrants and invaders, which rendered the much harried land of Egypt safe. The last lines picture this condition with the crushing of the surrounding tribes. Libya was wasted, the Hittites pacified, Canaan, Ashkelon (Ascalon), Gezer, Yenoam sacked and plundered: "Israel is desolated, his seed is not, Khor (Palestine) has become a widow (without protector) for Egypt." The Libyans are accompanied by allies whose names, Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukku, Teresh, suggest identifications with Sardinians, Sicels, Achaeans, Lycians and Tyrseni or Etruscans. The Sherden had been in the armies of Rameses II., and are distinguished by their remarkable helmets and apparently body armour of metal. The Lukku are certainly the same as the Lycians. Probably they were all sea-rovers from the shores and islands of the Mediterranean, who were willing to leave their ships and join the Libyans in raids on the rich lands of Egypt. Mineptah was one of the most unconscionable usurpers of the monuments of his predecessors, including those of his own father, who, it must be admitted, had set him the example. The coarse cutting of his cartouches contrasts with the splendid finish of the Middle Kingdom work which they disfigure. It may be questioned whether it was due to a wave of enthusiasm amongst the priests and people, leading them to rededicate the monuments in the name of their deliverer, or a somewhat insane desire of the king to perpetuate his own memory in a singularly unfortunate manner. Mineptah, the thirteenth son in the huge family of Rameses, must have been old when he ascended the throne; after his first years of reign his energies gave way, and he was followed by a quick succession of inglorious rulers, Seti II., the queen Tuosri, Amenmesse, Siptah; the names of the last two were erased from their monuments. Entry: 1