Three types of heresy have appeared in the history of the Christian Church.[1] The earliest may be called the _syncretic_; it is the fusion of Jewish or pagan with Christian elements. _Ebionitism_ asserted "the continual obligation to observe the whole of the Mosaic law," and "outran the Old Testament monotheism by a barren monarchianism that denied the divinity of Christ" (Kurtz, _Church History_, i. 120). "_Gnosticism_ was the result of the attempt to blend with Christianity the religious notions of pagan mythology, mysterology, theosophy and philosophy" (p. 98). The Judaizing and the paganizing tendency were combined in _Gnostic Ebionitism_ which was prepared for in _Jewish Essenism_. In the later heresy of _Manichaeism_ there were affinities to Gnosticism, but it was a mixture of many elements, Babylonian-Chaldaic theosophy, Persian dualism and even Buddhist ethics (p. 126). Entry: A
As long as the Christian Church was itself persecuted by the pagan empire, it advocated freedom of conscience, and insisted that religion could be promoted only by instruction and persuasion (Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Lactantius); but almost immediately after Christianity was adopted as the religion of the Roman empire the persecution of men for religious opinions began. While Constantine at the beginning of his reign (313) declared complete religious liberty, and kept on the whole to this declaration, yet he confined his favours to the orthodox hierarchical church, and even by an edict of the year 326 formally asserted the exclusion from these of heretics and schismatics. Arianism, when favoured by the reigning emperor, showed itself even more intolerant than Catholic Orthodoxy. Theodosius the Great, in 380, soon after his baptism, issued, with his co-emperors, the following edict: "We, the three emperors, will that all our subjects steadfastly adhere to the religion which was taught by St Peter to the Romans, which has been faithfully preserved by tradition, and which is now professed by the pontiff Damasus of Rome, and Peter, bishop of Alexandria, a man of apostolic holiness. According to the institution of the Apostles, and the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one Godhead of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, of equal majesty in the Holy Trinity. We order that the adherents of this faith be called _Catholic Christians_; we brand all the senseless followers of the other religions with the infamous name of _heretics_, and forbid their conventicles assuming the name of churches. Besides the condemnation of divine justice, they must expect the heavy penalties which our authority, guided by heavenly wisdom, shall think proper to inflict" (Schaff's _Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity_, i. 142). The fifteen penal laws which this emperor issued in as many years deprived them of all right to the exercise of their religion, "excluded them from all civil offices, and threatened them with fines, confiscation, banishment and even in some cases with death." In 385 Maximus, his rival and colleague, caused seven heretics to be put to death at Treves (Trier). Many bishops approved the act, but Ambrose of Milan and Martin of Tours condemned it. While Chrysostom disapproved of the execution of heretics, he approved "the prohibition of their assemblies and the confiscation of their churches." Jerome by an appeal to Deut. xiii. 6-10 appears to defend even the execution of heretics. Augustine found a justification for these penal measures in the "compel them to come in" of Luke xiv. 23, although his personal leanings were towards clemency. Only the persecuted themselves insisted on toleration as a Christian duty. In the middle ages the church showed no hesitation about persecuting unto death all who dared to contradict her doctrine, or challenge her practice, or question her authority. The instruction and persuasion which St Bernard favoured found little imitation. Even the Dominicans, who began as a preaching order to convert heretics, soon became persecutors. In the Albigensian Crusade (A.D. 1209-1229) thousands were slaughtered. As the bishops were not zealous enough in enforcing penal laws against heretics, the Tribunal of the Inquisition was founded in 1232 by Gregory IX., and was entrusted to the Dominicans who "as _Domini canes_ subjected to the most cruel tortures all on whom the suspicion of heresy fell, and all the resolute were handed over to the civil authorities, who readily undertook their execution" (Kurtz, _Church History_, ii. 137-138). Entry: A
The subject cannot be left without a brief reference to the persecution of witches. To the beginning of the 13th century the popular superstitions regarding sorcery, witchcraft and compacts with the devil were condemned by the ecclesiastical authorities as heathenish, sinful and heretical. But after the establishment of the Inquisition "heresy and sorcery were regarded as correlates, like two agencies resting on and serviceable to the demoniacal powers, and were therefore treated in the same way as offences to be punished with torture and the stake" (Kurtz, _Church History_, ii. 195). While the Franciscans rejected the belief in witchcraft, the Dominicans were most zealous in persecuting witches. In the 15th century this delusion, fostered by the ecclesiastical authorities, took possession of the mind of the people, and thousands, mostly old women, but also a number of girls, were tortured and burned as witches. Protestantism took over the superstition from Catholicism. It was defended by James I. of England. As late as the 18th century death was inflicted in Germany and Switzerland on men, women and even children accused of this crime. This superstition dominated Scotland. Not till 1736 were the statutes against witchcraft repealed; an act which the Associate Presbytery at Edinburgh in 1743 declared to be "contrary to the express law of God, for which a holy God may be provoked in a way of righteous judgment." Entry: A
The next type of heresy may be called _evolutionary_ or _formatory_. When the Christian faith is being formulated, undue emphasis may be put on one aspect, and thus so partial a statement of truth may result in error. Thus when in the ante-Nicene age the doctrine of the Trinity was under discussion, dynamic _Monarchianism_ "regarded Christ as a mere man, who, like the prophets, though in a much higher measure, had been endued with divine wisdom and power"; modal _Monarchianism_ saw in the Logos dwelling in Christ "only a mode of the activity of the Father"; _Patripassianism_ identified the Logos with the Father; and _Sabellianism_ regarded Father, Son and Spirit as "the _rôles_ which the God who manifests Himself in the world assumes in succession" (Kurtz, _Church History_, i. 175-181). When Arius asserted the subordination of the Son to the Father, and denied the eternal generation, Athanasius and his party asserted the _Homoousia_, the cosubstantiality of the Father and the Son. This assertion of the divinity of Christ triumphed, but other problems at once emerged. How was the relation of the humanity to the divinity in Christ to be conceived? Apollinaris denied the completeness of the human nature, and substituted the divine Logos for the reasonable soul of man. Nestorius held the two natures so far apart as to appear to sacrifice the unity of the person of Christ. Eutyches on the contrary "taught not only that after His incarnation Christ had only one nature, but also that the body of Christ as the body of God is not of like substance with our own" (Kurtz, _Church History_, i, 330-334). The Church in the Creed of Chalcedon in A.D. 451 affirmed "that Christ is true God and true man, according to His Godhead begotten from eternity and like the Father in everything, only without sin; and that after His incarnation the unity of the person consists in two natures which are conjoined without confusion, and without change, but also without rending and without separation." The problem was not solved, but the inadequate solutions were excluded, and the data to be considered in any adequate solution were affirmed. After this decision the controversies about the Person of Christ degenerated into mere hair-splitting; and the interference of the imperial authority from time to time in the dispute was not conducive to the settlement of the questions in the interests of truth alone. This problem interested the East for the most part; in the West there was waged a theological warfare around the nature of man and the work of Christ. To Augustine's doctrine of man's total depravity, his incapacity for any good, and the absolute sovereignty of the divine grace in salvation according to the divine election, Pelagius opposed the view that "God's grace is destined for all men, but man must make himself worthy of it by honest striving after virtue" (Kurtz, _Church History_, i. 348). While Pelagius was condemned, it was only a modified Augustinianism which became the doctrine of the church. It is not necessary in illustration of the second type of heresy--that which arises when the contents of the Christian faith are being defined--to refer to the doctrinal controversies of the middle ages. It may be added that after the Reformation Arianism was revived in Socinianism, and Pelagianism in Arminianism; but the conception of heresy in Protestantism demands subsequent notice. Entry: A
KITE-FLYING KOSTER, LAURENS KIT-FOX KOSTROMA (government of Russia) KITTO, JOHN KOSTROMA (town of Russia) KITTUR KÖSZEG KITZINGEN KOTAH KIU-KIANG FU KOTAS KIUSTENDIL KOTKA KIVU KOTRI KIWI KOTZEBUE, AUGUST FRIEDRICH VON KIZILBASHES KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON KIZIL IRMAK KOUMISS KIZLYAR KOUMOUNDOUROS, ALEXANDROS KIZYL-KUM KOUSSO KJERULF, HALFDAN KOVALEVSKY, SOPHIE KJERULF, THEODOR KOVNO (government of Russia) KLADNO KOVNO (town of Russia) KLAFSKY, KATHARINA KOVROV KLAGENFURT KOWTOW KLAJ, JOHANN KOZLOV KLAMATH KRAAL KLAPKA, GEORG KRAFFT, ADAM KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS KRAGUYEVATS KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH KRAKATOA KLÉBER, JEAN BAPTISTE KRAKEN KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD KRALYEVO KLEIST, BERND HEINRICH VON KRANTZ, ALBERT KLEIST, EWALD CHRISTIAN VON KRASNOVODSK KLERKSDORP KRASNOYARSK KLESL, MELCHIOR KRASZEWSKI, JOSEPH IGNATIUS KLINGER, FRIEDRICH VON KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH KLINGER, MAX KRAWANG KLIPSPRINGER KRAY VON KRAJOVA, PAUL KLONDIKE KREMENCHUG KLOPP, ONNO KREMENETS KLOPSTOCK, GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH KREMS KLOSTERNEUBURG KREMSIER KLOTZ, REINHOLD KREUTZER, KONRADIN KNARESBOROUGH KREUTZER, RUDOLPH KNAVE KREUZBURG KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG VON KREUZNACH KNEE KRIEGSPIEL KNELLER, SIR GODFREY KRIEMHILD KNICKERBOCKER, HARMEN JANSEN KRILOFF, IVAN ANDREEVICH KNIFE KRISHNA KNIGGE, ADOLF FRANZ FRIEDRICH KRISHNAGAR KNIGHT, CHARLES KRISTIANSTAD KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY KRIVOY ROG KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON KROCHMAL, NAHMAN KNIGHTHOOD and CHIVALRY KRONENBERG KNIGHT-SERVICE KRONSTADT KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE KROONSTAD KNIPPERDOLLINCK, BERNT KROPOTKIN, PETER ALEXEIVICH KNITTING KROTOSCHIN KNOBKERRIE KRÜDENER, BARBARA JULIANA KNOLLES, RICHARD KRUG, WILHELM TRAUGOTT KNOLLES, SIR ROBERT KRUGER, STEPHANUS JOHANNES PAULUS KNOLLYS KRUGERSDORP KNOT (bird) KRUMAU KNOT (loop of rope) KRUMBACHER, CARL KNOUT KRUMEN KNOWLES, SIR JAMES KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF KNOWLES, JAMES SHERIDAN KRUPP, ALFRED KNOW NOTHING PARTY KRUSENSTERN, ADAM IVAN KNOX, HENRY KRUSHEVATS KNOX, JOHN KSHATTRIYA KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE KUBAN (river of Russia) KNOXVILLE KUBAÑ (province of Russia) KNUCKLE KUBELIK, JAN KNUCKLEBONES KUBERA KNUTSFORD KUBLAI KHAN KOALA KUBUS KOBDO KUCHAN KOBELL, WOLFGANG XAVER FRANZ KUCH BEHAR KOCH, ROBERT KUDU KOCH (tribe) KUENEN, ABRAHAM KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE KUEN-LUN KODAIKANAL KUFA KODAMA, GENTARO KUHN, FRANZ FELIX ADALBERT KODUNGALUR KÜHNE, WILLY KOENIG, KARL DIETRICH EBERHARD KUKA KOESFELD KU KLUX KLAN KOHAT KUKU KHOTO KOHAT PASS KULJA KOHISTAN KULM KOHL KULMBACH KOHLHASE, HANS KULMSEE KOKOMO KULP KOKO-NOR KULU KOKSHAROV, NIKOLAÍ VON KUM KOKSTAD KUMAIT IBN ZAID KOLA KUMAON KOLABA KUMASI KOLAR KUMISHAH KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN KUMQUAT KOLBERG KUMTA KÖLCSEY, FERENCZ KUMYKS KOLDING KUNAR KOLGUEV KUNBIS KOLHAPUR KUNDT, AUGUST ADOLPH EDUARD EBERHARD KOLIN KUNDUZ KOLIS KUNENE KÖLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON KUNERSDORF KOLLONTAJ, HUGO KUNGRAD KOLOMEA KUNGUR KOLOMNA KUNKEL VON LOWENSTJERN, JOHANN KOLOZSVÁR KUNLONG KOLPINO KUNZITE KOLS KUOPIO (province of Finland) KOLYVAÑ KUOPIO (city of Finland) KOMÁROM KUPRILI KOMATI KURAKIN, BORIS IVANOVICH KOMOTAU KURBASH KOMURA, JUTARO KURDISTAN (country) KONARAK KURDISTAN (province of Persia) KONG KURGAN KONGSBERG KURIA MURIA ISLANDS KONIA KURILES KONIECPOLSKI, STANISLAUS KURISCHES HAFF KÖNIG, KARL RUDOLPH KURNOOL KÖNIGGRÄTZ KUROKI, ITEI KÖNIGINHOF KUROPATKIN, ALEXEI NIKOLAIEVICH KÖNIGSBERG KURO SIWO KÖNIGSBORN KURRAM KÖNIGSHÜTTE KURSEONG KÖNIGSLUTTER KURSK (government of Russia) KÖNIGSMARK, MARIA AURORA KURSK (town of Russia) KÖNIGSMARK, PHILIPP CHRISTOPH KURTZ, JOHANN HEINRICH KÖNIGSSEE KURUMAN KÖNIGSTEIN KURUMBAS and KURUBAS KÖNIGSWINTER KURUNEGALA KONINCK, LAURENT GUILLAUME DE KURUNTWAD KONINCK, PHILIP DE KURZ, HERMANN KONITZ KUSAN KONKAN KUSHALGARH KONTAGORA KUSHK KOORINGA KUSTANAISK KÖPENICK KÜSTENLAND KOPISCH, AUGUST KUTAIAH KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ KUTAIS (government of Russia) KOPRÜLÜ KUTAIS (town of Russia) KORA KUT-EL-AMARA KORAN KUTENAI KORAT KUTTALAM KORDOFAN KUTTENBERG KOREA (country) KUTUSOV, MIKHAIL LARIONOVICH KOREA (Indian tributary state) KUWET KORESHAN ECCLESIA, THE KUZNETSK KORIN, OGATA KVASS KORKUS KWAKIUTL KÖRMÖCZBÁNYA KWANGCHOW BAY KÖRNER, KARL THEODOR KWANG-SI KORNEUBURG KWANG-TUNG KOROCHA KWANZA KORSÖR KWEI-CHOW KORTCHA KYAUKPYU KORYAKS KYAUKSE KOSCIUSCO KYD, THOMAS KOSCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ BONAWENTURA KYFFHÄUSER KÖSEN KYNASTON, EDWARD KOSHER KYNETON KÖSLIN KYOSAI, SHO-FU KOSSOVO KYRIE KOSSUTH, FERENCZ LAJOS AKOS KYRLE, JOHN KOSSUTH, LAJOS KYSHTYM Entry: KITE
No work of reference has been more useful and successful, or more frequently copied, imitated and translated, than that known as the _Conversations Lexikon_ of Brockhaus. It was begun as _Conversations Lexikon mit vorzüglicher Rücksicht auf die gegenwärtigen Zeiten_, Leipzig, 1796 to 1808, 8vo, 6 vols., 2762 pages, by Dr Gotthelf Renatus Löbel (born on the 1st of April 1767 at Thalwitz near Wurzen in Saxony, died on the 14th of February 1799), who intended to supersede Hübner, and included geography, history, and in part biography, besides mythology, philosophy, natural history, &c. Vols. i.-iv. (A to R) appeared 1796 to 1800, vol. v. in 1806. Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus (q.v.) bought the work with its copyright on the 25th of October 1808, for 1800 thalers from the printer, who seems to have got it in payment of his bill. The editor, Christian Wilhelm Franke, by contract dated the 16th of November, was to finish vol. vi. by the 5th of December, and the already projected supplement, 2 vols., by Michaelmas 1809, for 8 thalers a printed sheet. No penalty was specified, but, says his grandson, Brockhaus was to learn that such contracts, whether under penalty or not, are not kept, for the supplement was finished only in 1811. Brockhaus issued a new impression as _Conversations Lexikon oder kurzgefasstes Handwörterbuch_, &c, 1809-1811, and on removing to Altenburg in 1811 began himself to edit the 2nd edition (1812-1819, 10 vols.), and, when vol. iv. was published, the 3rd (1814-1819). He carried on both editions together until 1817, when he removed to Leipzig, and began the 4th edition as _Allgemeine deutsche Realencyclopädie für die gebildeten Stände. Conversations Lexikon_. This title was, in the 14th edition, changed to that of _Brockhaus' Konversations Lexicon_. The 5th edition was at once begun, and was finished in eighteen months. Dr Ludwig Hain assisted in editing the 4th and 5th editions until he left Leipzig in April 1820, when Professor F.C. Hasse took his place. The 12,000 copies of the 5th edition being exhausted while vol. x. was at press, a 2nd unaltered impression of 10,000 was required in 1820 and a 3rd of 10,000 in 1822. The 6th edition, 10 vols., was begun in September 1822. Brockhaus died in 1823, and his two eldest sons, Friedrich and Heinrich, who carried on the business for the heirs and became sole possessors in 1829, finished the edition with Hasse's assistance in September 1823. The 7th edition (1827-1829, 12 vols., 10,489 pages, 13,000 copies, 2nd impression 14,000) was edited by Hasse. The 8th edition (1833-1836, 12 vols., 10,689 pages, 31,000 copies to 1842), begun in the autumn of 1832, ended May 1837, was edited by Dr Karl August Espe (born February 1804, died in the Irrenanstalt at Stötteritz near Leipzig on the 24th of November 1850) with the aid of many learned and distinguished writers. A general index, Universal Register, 242 pages, was added in 1839. The 9th edition (1843-1847, 15 vols., 11,470 pages, over 30,000 copies) was edited by Dr Espe. The 10th edition (1851-1855, 12,564 pages) was also in 15 vols., for convenience in reference, and was edited by Dr August Kurtzel aided by Oskar Pilz. Friedrich Brockhaus had retired in 1849; Dr Heinrich Edward, the elder son of Heinrich, made partner in 1854, assisted in this edition, and Heinrich Rudolf, the younger son, partner since 1863, in the 11th (1864-1868, 15 vols. of 60 sheets, 13,366 pages). Entry: A
EULENSPIEGEL [ULENSPIEGEL], TILL, the name of a German folk-hero, and the title of a popular German chapbook on the subject, of the beginning of the 16th century. The oldest existing German text of the book was printed at Strassburg in 1515 (_Ein kurtzweilig lesen von Dyl Vlenspiegel geboren vss dem land zu Brunsswick_), and again in 1519. This is not in the original dialect, which was undoubtedly Low Saxon, but in High German, the translation having been formerly ascribed--but on insufficient evidence--to the Catholic satirist Thomas Murner. Its hero, Till Eulenspiegel or Ulenspiegel, the son of a peasant, was born at Kneitlingen in Brunswick, at the end of the 13th or at the beginning of the 14th century. He died, according to tradition, at Mölln near Lübeck in 1350. The jests and practical jokes ascribed to him were collected--if we may believe a statement in one of the old prints--in 1483; but in any case the edition of 1515 was not even the oldest High German edition. Eulenspiegel himself is locally associated with the Low German area extending from Magdeburg to Hanover, and from Lüneburg to the Harz Mountains. He is the wily peasant who loves to exercise his wit and roguery on the tradespeople of the towns, above all, on the innkeepers; but priests, noblemen, even princes, are also among his victims. His victories are often pointless, more often brutal; he stoops without hesitation to scurrility and obscenity, while of the finer, sharper wit which the humanists and the Italians introduced into the anecdote, he has little or nothing. His jests are coarsely practical, and his satire turns on class distinctions. In fact, this chapbook might be described as the retaliation of the peasant on the townsman who in the 14th and 15th centuries had begun to look down upon the country boor as a natural inferior. Entry: EULENSPIEGEL