"I only touch base with reality on an as-needed basis!" -- Royal Floyd Mengot (Klaus)
We can take it slow,” he said. “You can learn to be with me. Find out what I’m all about. You never know, you might like what you find.
Meanwhile, the Low German peoples also benefited by the revival of an interest in dialect and peasant life; it is to the credit of Fritz Reuter (1810-1874) that he brought honour to the Plattdeutsch of the north, the dialects of which had played a fitful, but by no means negligible rôle in the earlier history of German letters. His Mecklenburg novels, especially _Ut de Franzosentid_ (1860), _Ut mine Festungstid_ (1863) and _Ut mine Stromtid_ (1862-1864), are a faithful reflection of Mecklenburg life and temperament, and hold their place beside the best German fiction of the period. What Reuter did for Plattdeutsch prose, his contemporary, Klaus Groth (1819-1899), the author of _Quickborn_ (1852), did for its verse. We owe, however, the best German prose fiction of these years to two writers, whose affinity with the older Romanticists was closer. The north German, Theodor Storm (1817-1888) is the author of a series of short stories of delicate, lyric inspiration, steeped in that elegiac Romanticism which harmonized so well with mid-century pessimism in Germany. Gottfried Keller (1819-1890), on the other hand, a native of Zürich, was a modern Romanticist of a robuster type; his magnificent autobiographical novel, _Der grüne Heinrich_ (1854-1855), might be described as the last in the great line of Romantic fiction that had begun with _Wilhelm Meister_, and the short stories, _Die Leute von Seldwyla_ (1856-1874) and _Züricher Novellen_ (1878) are masterpieces of the first rank. Entry: VI
GROTH, KLAUS (1819-1899), Low German poet, was born at Heide in Schleswig-Holstein, on the 24th of April 1819. After studying at the seminary in Tondern (1838-1841), he became a teacher at the girls' school in his native village, but in 1847 went to Kiel to qualify for a higher educational post. Ill-health interrupted his studies and it was not until 1853 that he was able to resume them at Kiel. In 1856 he took the degree of doctor of philosophy at Bonn, and in 1858 settled as _privatdocent_ in German literature and languages at Kiel, where, in 1866, he was made professor, and where he lived until his death on the 1st of June 1899. In his Low German (_Plattdeutsch_) lyric and epic poems, which reflect the influence of Johann Peter Hebel (q.v.), Groth gives poetic expression to the country life of his northern home; and though his descriptions may not always reflect the peculiar characteristics of the peasantry of Holstein as faithfully as those of F. Reuter (q.v.), yet Groth is a lyric poet of genuine inspiration. His chief works are _Quickborn, Volksleben in plattdeutschen Gedichten Ditmarscher Mundart_ (1852; 25th ed. 1900; and in High German translations, notably by M. J. Berchem, Krefeld, 1896); and two volumes of stories, _Vertelln_ (1855-1859, 3rd ed. 1881); also _Voer de Goern_ (1858) and _Ut min Jungsparadies_ (1875). Entry: GROTH
GREEK LAW GREY, SIR GEORGE GREEK LITERATURE GREY, HENRY GREY GREEK RELIGION GREY, LADY JANE GREELEY, HORACE GREY DE WILTON GREELEY GREYMOUTH GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY GREYTOWN GREEN, DUFF GREYWACKE GREEN, JOHN RICHARD GRIBEAUVAL, JEAN BAPTISTE DE GREEN, MATTHEW GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH GREEN, THOMAS HILL GRIEG, EDVARD HAGERUP GREEN, VALENTINE GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY GRIESBACH GREENAWAY, KATE GRIFFE GREENBACKS GRIFFENFELDT, PEDER GREEN BAY GRIFFIN, GERALD GREENCASTLE GRIFFIN (Georgia, U.S.A.) GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON GRIFFIN (creature) GREENE, MAURICE GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN GREENE, NATHANAEL GRILLE GREENE, ROBERT GRILLPARZER, FRANZ GREENFIELD GRIMALD, NICHOLAS GREENFINCH GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO GREENHEART GRIMALDI, JOSEPH GREENLAND GRIMKÉ, SARAH MOORE & ANGELINA EMILY GREENLAW GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR GREENLEAF, SIMON GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL GREEN MONKEY GRIMM, WILHELM CARL GREENOCK GRIMMA GREENOCKITE GRIMMELSHAUSEN, HANS CHRISTOFFEL VON GREENORE GRIMOARD, PHILIPPE HENRI GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS GRIMSBY GREENOUGH, HORATIO GRIMSTON, SIR HARBOTTLE GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET GRIMTHORPE, EDMUND BECKETT GREEN RIBBON CLUB GRINDAL, EDMUND GREENSAND GRINDELWALD GREENSBORO GRINGOIRE, PIERRE GREENSBURG GRINNELL GREENSHANK GRIQUALAND EAST and GRIQUALAND WEST GREENVILLE (Mississippi, U.S.A.) GRISAILLE GREENVILLE (Ohio, U.S.A.) GRISELDA GREENVILLE (S. Carolina, U.S.A.) GRISI, GIULIA GREENVILLE (Texas, U.S.A.) GRISON GREENWICH (Connecticut, U.S.A.) GRISONS GREENWICH (England) GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT GREENWOOD, FREDERICK GRIVET GREENWOOD, JOHN GROAT GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE GROCER GREGARINES GROCYN, WILLIAM GRÉGOIRE, HENRI GRODNO (government of Russia) GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS GRODNO (town of Russia) GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME GREGORY, ST GROIN GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS GROLMANN, KARL WILHELM GEORG VON GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA GROMATICI GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS GRONINGEN GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR GRONINGEN GREGORY (popes) GRONLUND, LAURENCE GREGORY (Scottish family) GRONOVIUS, JOHANN FRIEDRICH GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN GROOM GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT GROOT, GERHARD GREIFENBERG GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL GREIFENHAGEN GROS, ANTOINE JEAN GREIFSWALD GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH GREISEN GROSBEAK GREIZ GROSE, FRANCIS GRENADA GROSS GRENADE GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR GRENADIER GROSSENHAIN GRENADINES GROSSETESTE, ROBERT GRENOBLE GROSSETO GRENVILLE, SIR BEVIL GROSSI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO GRENVILLE, GEORGE GROSSI, TOMMASO GRENVILLE, SIR RICHARD (naval c.) GROSSMITH, GEORGE GRENVILLE, SIR RICHARD (royalist) GROS VENTRES GRENVILLE, WILLIAM GRENVILLE GROTE, GEORGE GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH GRESHAM, WALTER QUINTON GROTESQUE GRESHAM'S LAW GROTH, KLAUS GRESSET, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS GROTH, PAUL HEINRICH VON GRETNA GREEN GROTIUS, HUGO GRÉTRY, ANDRÉ ERNEST MODESTE GROTTAFERRATA GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE GROUCHY, EMMANUEL GREVILLE, CHARLES FULKE GROUND-ICE GRÉVIN, JACQUES GROUND NUT GRÈVY, FRANÇOIS PAUL JULES GROUND-PEARL GREW, NEHEMIAH GROUND RENT GREY, CHARLES GREY GROUNDSEL GREY, SIR EDWARD GROUND-SQUIRREL Entry: GREEK
In 1477 the town was finally freed from the rule of Savoy, while in 1481 (with Soleure) it became a member of the Swiss Confederation, largely, it is said, through the influence of the holy man, Bruder Klaus (Niklaus von der Flüe). In 1475 the town had taken Illens and Arconciel from Savoy, and in 1536 won from Vaud much territory, including Romont, Rue, Châtel St Denis, Estavayer, St Aubin (by these two conquests its dominion reached the Lake of Neuchâtel), as well as Vuissens and Surpierre, which still form outlying portions (physically within the canton of Vaud) of its territory, while in 1537 it took Bulle from the bishop of Lausanne. In 1502-1504 the lordship of Bellegarde or Jaun was bought, while in 1555 it acquired (jointly with Bern) the lands of the last count of the Gruyère, and thus obtained the rich district of that name. From 1475 it ruled (with Bern) the bailiwicks of Morat, Grandson, Orbe and Echallens, just taken from Savoy, but in 1798 Morat was incorporated with (finally annexed in 1814) the canton of Fribourg, the other bailiwicks being then given to the canton of Léman (later of Vaud). In the 16th century the original democratic government gradually gave place to the oligarchy of the patrician families. Though this government caused much discontent it continued till it was overthrown on the French occupation of 1798. Entry: FRIBOURG
The Harz is a mass of Palaeozoic rock rising through the Mesozoic strata of north Germany, and bounded on all sides by faults. Slates, schists, quartzites and limestones form the greater part of the hills, but the Brocken and Victorshöhe are masses of intrusive granite, and diabases and diabase tuffs are interstratified with the sedimentary deposits. The Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous systems are represented--the Silurian and Devonian forming the greater part of the hills S.E. of a line drawn from Lauterberg to Wernigerode, while N.W. of this line the Lower Carboniferous predominates. A few patches of Upper Carboniferous are found on the borders of the hills near Ilfeld, Ballenstedt, &c., lying unconformably upon the Devonian. The structure of the Harz is very complicated, but the general strike of the folds, especially in the Oberharz plateau, is N.E. or N.N.E. The whole mass evidently belongs to the ancient Hercynian chain of North Europe (which, indeed, derives its name from the Harz), and is the north-easterly continuation of the rocks of the Ardennes and the Eifel. The folding of the old rocks took place towards the close of the Palaeozoic era; but the faulting to which they owe their present position was probably Tertiary. Metalliferous veins are common, amongst the best-known being the silver-bearing lead veins of Klausthal, which occur in the Culm or Lower Carboniferous. Entry: HARZ
The Reformation had at first produced little effect on Hungary. Except in the towns, mostly of German origin, it was generally detested, just because it came from Germany. The battle of Mohács, however, severely shook the faith of the Hungarians. "Where are the old Magyar saints? Why do they not defend the realm against the Turks?" was the general cry. Moreover, the corrupt church had lost its hold on the affections of the people. Zapolya, a devout Catholic, is lauded by Archbishop Frangipan in 1533 for arresting the spread of the new doctrines, though he would not allow Martinuzzi to take the extreme step of burning perverts at the stake. These perverts were mostly to be found among nobles desirous of amassing church property, or among those of the clergy who clamoured for communion in both kinds. So long, however, as the old national kingdom survived, the majority of the people still clung to the old faith. Under Ferdinand the parochial clergy were tempted to become Lutherans by the prospect of matrimony, and, in reply to the remonstrances of their bishops, declared that they would rather give up their cures than their wives. In Transylvania matters were at first ordered more peaceably. In 1552 the new doctrines obtained complete recognition there, the diet of Torda (1557) going so far as to permit every one to worship in his own way so long as he did not molest his neighbour. Yet, in the following year, the whole of the property of the Catholic Church there was diverted to secular uses, and the Calvinists were simultaneously banished, though they regained complete tolerance in 1564, a privilege at the same time extended to the Unitarians, who were now very influential at court and converted Prince John Sigismund to their views. In Turkish Hungary all the confessions enjoyed liberty of worship, though the Catholics, as possible partisans of the "king of Vienna," were liked the least. It was only when the Jesuits obtained a footing both at Prague[30] and Klausenburg that persecution began, but then it was very violent. In Transylvania the princes of the Báthory family (1571-1604) were ardent disciples of the Jesuit fathers, and Sigismund Báthory in particular persecuted fiercely, his fury being especially directed against the queer judaizing sect known as the Sabbatarians, whose tenets were adopted by the Szeklers, the most savage of "the three nations" of Transylvania, many thousands of whom were, after a bloody struggle, forced to emigrate. In royal Hungary also the Jesuits were the chief persecutors. The extirpation of Protestantism was a deliberate prearranged programme, and as Protestantism was by this time identical with Magyarism[31] the extirpation of the one was tantamount to the extirpation of the other. The method generally adopted was to deprive the preachers in the towns of their churches by force, Italian mercenaries being preferably employed for the purpose. It was assumed that the Protestant nobles' jealousy of the burgesses would prevent them from interfering; but religious sympathy proved stronger than caste prejudice, and the diets protested against the persecution of their fellow citizens so vehemently that religious matters were withdrawn from their jurisdiction. Entry: A
In the next literary period (1530-1606) several translations of the Scriptures are recorded. Among these there are--versions of the Epistles of St Paul, by Benedict Komjáti (Cracow, 1533); of the Four Gospels, by Gabriel (Mizsér) Pesti (Vienna, 1536); of the New Testament, by John Erdösi (Ujsziget, 1541; 2nd ed., Vienna, 1574[70]), and by Thomas Félegyházi (1586); and the translations of the Bible, by Caspar Heltai (Klausenburg, 1551-1565), and by Caspar Károli (Vizsoly, near Göncz, 1589-1590). The last, considered the best, was corrected and re-edited by Albert Molnár at Hanau in 1608.[71] Heltai published also (1571) a translation, improved from that by Blasius Veres (1565), of the _Tripartitum_ of Verböczy, and _Chronika_ (1575) adapted from the _Decades_ of Bonfini. Karádi in 1569 brought to light the earliest national drama, _Balassi Menyhért_. Among the native poets, mostly mere rhyming chroniclers of the 16th century, were Csanádi, Tinódi, Nagy-Báczai, Bogáti, Ilósvay, Istvánfi, Görgei, Temesvári and Valkai. Of these the best and most prolific writer was Tinódi. Székely wrote in prose, with verse introduction, a "Chronicle of the World" under the title of _Cronica ez világnac yeles dolgairól_ (Cracow, 1559). Csáktornya and Kákony imitated the ancient classical poets, and Erdösi introduced the hexameter. Andrew Farkas and the homilist Peter Melius (Juhász) attempted didactic verse; and Batizi busied himself with sacred song and Biblical history. During the latter part of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th two poets of a higher order appeared in Valentine Balassa, the earliest Magyar lyrical writer, and his contemporary John Rimay, whose poems are of a contemplative and pleasing character. Entry: IV
The Harz is one of the richest mineral storehouses in Germany, and the chief industry is mining, which has been carried on since the middle of the 10th century. The most important mineral is a peculiarly rich argentiferous lead, but gold in small quantities, copper, iron, sulphur, alum and arsenic are also found. Mining is carried on principally at Klausthal and St Andreasberg in the Upper Harz. Near the latter is one of the deepest mining shafts in Europe, namely the Samson, which goes down 2790 ft. or 720 ft. below sea-level. For the purpose of getting rid of the water, and obviating the flooding of such deep workings, it has been found necessary to construct drainage works of some magnitude. As far back as 1777-1799 the Georgsstollen was cut through the mountains from the east of Klausthal westward to Grund, a distance of 4 m.; but this proving insufficient, another sewer, the Ernst-Auguststollen, no less than 14 m. in length, was made from the same neighbourhood to Gittelde, at the west side of the Harz, in 1851-1864. Marble, granite and gypsum are worked; and large quantities of vitriol are manufactured. The vast forests that cover the mountain slopes supply the materials for a considerable trade in timber. Much wood is exported for building and other purposes, and in the Harz itself is used as fuel. The sawdust of the numerous mills is collected for use in the manufacture of paper. Turf-cutting, coarse lace-making and the breeding of canaries and native song-birds also occupy many of the people. Agriculture is carried on chiefly on the plateaus of the Lower Harz; but there is excellent pasturage both in the north and in the south. In the Lower Harz, as in Switzerland, the cows, which carry bells harmoniously tuned, are driven up into the heights in early summer, returning to the sheltered regions in late autumn. Entry: HARZ
_Physical Features._--The greater part of Hanover is a plain with sandhills, heath and moor. The most fertile districts lie on the banks of the Elbe and near the North Sea, where, as in Holland, rich meadows are preserved from encroachment of the sea by broad dikes and deep ditches, kept in repair at great expense. The main feature of the northern plain is the so-called _Lüneburger Heide_, a vast expanse of moor and fen, mainly covered with low brushwood (though here and there are oases of fine beech and oak woods) and intersected by shallow valleys, and extending almost due north from the city of Hanover to the southern arm of the Elbe at Harburg. The southern portion of the province is hilly, and in the district of Klausenburg, containing the Harz, mountainous. The higher elevations are covered by dense forests of fir and larch, and the lower slopes with deciduous trees. The eastern portion of the northern plain is covered with forests of fir. The whole of Hanover dips from the Harz Mountains to the north, and the rivers consequently flow in that direction. The three chief rivers of the province are the Elbe in the north-east, where it mainly forms the boundary and receives the navigable tributaries Jeetze, Ilmenau, Seve, Este, Lühe, Schwinge and Medem; the Weser in the centre, with its important tributary the Aller (navigable from Celle downwards); and in the west the Ems, with its tributaries the Aa and the Leda. Still farther West is the Vecht, which, rising in Westphalia, flows to the Zuider Zee. Canals are numerous and connect the various river systems. Entry: HANOVER
BRIXEN (Ital. _Bressanone_), a small city in the Austrian province of Tirol, and the chief town of the administrative district of Brixen. Pop. (1900) 5767. It is situated in the valley of the Eisack, at the confluence of that stream with the Rienz, and is a station on the Brenner railway, being 34 m. south-east of that pass, and 24 m. north-east of Botzen. The aspect of the city is very ecclesiastical; it is still the see of a bishop, and contains an 18th-century cathedral church, an episcopal palace and seminary, twelve churches and five monasteries. The see was founded at the end of the 8th century (possibly of the 6th century) at Säben on the rocky heights above the town of Klausen (some way to the south of Brixen), but in 992 was transferred to Brixen, which, perhaps a Roman station, became later a royal estate, under the name of _Prichsna_, and in 901 was given by Louis the Child to the bishop. In 1027 the bishop received from the emperor Conrad II. very extensive temporal powers, which he only lost to Austria in 1803. The town was surrounded in 1030 by walls. In 1525 it was the scene of the first outbreak of the great peasants' revolt. About 5½ m. north of Brixen is the great fortress of Franzensfeste, built 1833-1838, to guard the route over the Brenner and the way to the east up the Pusterthal. Entry: BRIXEN
BETHLEN, GABRIEL (GÁBOR) (1580-1629), prince of Transylvania, the most famous representative of the Iktári branch of a very ancient Hungarian family, was born at Illyé, and educated at Szarhegy, at the castle of his uncle András Lázár. Thence he was sent to the court of Prince Zsigmond Báthory, whom he accompanied on his famous Wallachian campaign in 1600. Subsequently he assisted Stephen Bocskay to mount the throne of Transylvania (1605), and remained his chief counsellor. Bethlen also supported Bocskay's successor Gabriel Báthory (1608-1613), but the prince became jealous of Bethlen's superior abilities, and he was obliged to take refuge with the Turks. In 1613 he led a large army against his persecutor, on whose murder by two of his officers that year Bethlen was placed on the throne by the Porte, in opposition to the wishes of the emperor, who preferred a prince who would incline more towards Vienna than towards Constantinople. On the 13th of October 1613, the diet of Klausenburg confirmed the choice of the sultan. In 1615 Gábor was also officially recognized by the emperor Matthias. Bethlen no sooner felt firmly seated on his throne than he seized the opportunity presented to him by the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War to take up arms in defence of the liberties and the constitution of the extra-Transylvanian Hungarian provinces, with the view of more effectually assuring his own position. While Ferdinand was occupied with the Bohemian rebels, Bethlen led his armies into Hungary (1619), and soon won over the whole of the northern counties, even securing Pressburg and the Holy Crown. Nevertheless he was not averse to a peace, nor to a preliminary suspension of hostilities, and negotiations were opened at Pressburg, Kassa and Beszterczebánya successively, but came to nothing because Bethlen insisted on including the Bohemians in the peace, whereupon (20th of August 1620) the estates of North Hungary elected him king. Bethlen accepted the title but refused to be crowned, and war was resumed, till the defeat of the Czechs at the battle of the White Hill gave a new turn to affairs. In Bohemia, Ferdinand II. took a fearful revenge upon the vanquished; and Bethlen, regarding a continuation of the war as unprofitable, concluded the peace of Nikolsburg (31st of December 1621), renouncing the royal title on condition that Ferdinand confirmed the peace of Vienna (which had granted full liberty of worship to the Protestants) and engaged to summon a general diet within six months. For himself Bethlen secured the title of prince of the Empire, the seven counties of the Upper Theiss, and the fortresses of Tokaj, Munkács and Ecsed. Subsequently Bethlen twice (1623 and 1626) took up arms against Ferdinand as the ally of the anti-Habsburg Protestant powers. The first war was concluded by the peace of Vienna, the second by the peace of Pressburg, both confirmatory of the peace of Nikolsburg. After the second of these insurrections, Bethlen attempted a rapprochement with the court of Vienna on the basis of an alliance against the Turks and his own marriage with one of the Austrian archduchesses; but Ferdinand had no confidence in him and rejected his overtures. Bethlen was obliged to renounce his anti-Turkish projects, which he had hitherto cherished as the great aim and object of his life, and continue in the old beaten paths. Accordingly, on his return from Vienna he wedded Catherine, the daughter of the elector of Brandenburg, and still more closely allied himself with the Protestant powers, especially with Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who, he hoped, would assist him to obtain the Polish crown. He died before he could accomplish any of his great designs (15th of November 1629), having previously secured the election of his wife Catherine as princess. His first wife, Susannah Károlyi, died in 1622. Entry: BETHLEN
BÁTHORY, SIGISMUND (ZSIGMOND), (1572-1613), prince of Transylvania, was the son of Christopher, prince of Transylvania, and Elizabeth Bocskay, and nephew of the great Stephen Báthory. He was elected prince in his father's lifetime, but being quite young at his father's death (1581), the government was entrusted to a regency. In 1588 he attained his majority, and, following the advice of his favourite councillor Alfonso Carillo, departed from the traditional policy of Transylvania in its best days (when friendly relations with the Porte were maintained as a matter of course, in order to counterpoise the ever hostile influence of the house of Habsburg), and joined the league of Christian princes against the Turk. The obvious danger of such a course caused no small anxiety in the principality, and the diet of Torda even went so far as to demand a fresh coronation oath from Sigismund, and, on his refusal to render it, threatened him with deposition. Ultimately Báthory got the better of his opponents, and executed all whom he got into his hands (1595). Nevertheless, if anybody could have successfully carried out an anti-Turkish policy, it was certainly Báthory. He had inherited the military genius of his uncle, and his victories astonished contemporary Europe. In 1595 he subdued Walachia and annihilated the army of Sinan Pasha at Giurgevo (October 28th). The turning-point of his career was his separation from his wife, the archduchess Christina of Austria, in 1599, an event followed by his own abdication the same year, in order that he might take orders. It was on this occasion that he offered the throne of Transylvania to the emperor Rudolph II., in exchange for the duchy of Oppeln. In 1600, however, at the head of an army of Poles and Cossacks, he attempted to recover his throne, but was routed by Michael, voivode of Moldavia, at Suceava. In February 1601 the diet of Klausenburg reinstated him, but again he was driven out by Michael, never to return. He died at Prague in 1613. Báthory's indisputable genius must have been warped by a strain of madness. His incalculableness, his savage cruelty (like most of the princes of his house he was a fanatical Catholic and persecutor) and his perpetual restlessness point plainly enough to a disordered mind. Entry: BÁTHORY