Life will break you. Nobody can protect you from that, and living alone won't either, for solitude will also break you with its yearning. You have to love. You have to feel. It is the reason you are here on earth. You are here to risk your heart. You are here to be swallowed up. And when it happens that you are broken, or betrayed, or left, or hurt, or death brushes near, let yourself sit by an apple tree and listen to the apples falling all around you in heaps, wasting their sweetness. Tell yourself you tasted as many as you could.
Whoso turns his attention to the bitter strifes of these days and seeks a reason<b> for the troubles that vex public and private life must come to the conclusion that a fruitful cause of the evils which now afflict, as well as of those which threaten us, lies in this: that false conclusions concerning divine and human things, which originated in the schools of philosophy, have crept into all the orders of the state, and have been accepted by the common consent of the masses. For since it is in the very nature of man to follow the guide of reason in his actions, if his intellect sins at all his will soon follows; and thus it happens that looseness of intellectual opinion influences human actions and perverts them. Whereas, on the other hand, if men be of sound mind and take their stand on true and solid principles, there will result a vast amount of benefits for the public and private good. [ ?terni Patris (“On the Restoration of Christian Philosophy”), §2, 1879.]
_Title: How it happens that men believe so many liars, who say they have seen miracles, and do not believe any of those who say they have secrets to make men immortal or render them young again._--Having considered how it happens that men have believed so many impostors, who pretend they have remedies, often to the length of putting their lives into their hands, it appears to me that the true cause is that there are true remedies. For it would not be possible there should be so many false, to which so much credence is given, were there none true. Were there no remedy for any evil, and were all diseases incurable, it is impossible that men should ever have imagined that they could give remedies, and still more impossible that so many others should have believed those who boasted that they had them. Just as if a man boasted that he could prevent death, no one would believe him because there is no example of this. But as there are a number of remedies which are approved as true, even by the knowledge of the greatest men, the belief of men is thereby inclined; and since the thing was known to be possible, it has been therefore concluded that it was. For the public as a rule reasons thus: A thing is possible, therefore it is; because the thing cannot be denied generally, since there are particular effects which are true, the people, who cannot discriminate which among particular effects are true, believe them all. This is the reason that so many false effects are attributed to the moon, because there are some true, such as the tide.
As always happens when women lead lonely lives for any length of time without male society, on Anatole's appearance all the three women of Prince Bolkonski's household felt that their life had not been real till then. Their powers of reasoning, feeling, and observing immediately increased tenfold, and their life, which seemed to have been passed in darkness, was suddenly lit up by a new brightness, full of significance.
It frequently happens that when several ships are cruising in company, a whale may be struck by one vessel, then escape, and be finally killed and captured by another vessel; and herein are indirectly comprised many minor contingencies, all partaking of this one grand feature. For example,--after a weary and perilous chase and capture of a whale, the body may get loose from the ship by reason of a violent storm; and drifting far away to leeward, be retaken by a second whaler, who, in a calm, snugly tows it alongside, without risk of life or line. Thus the most vexatious and violent disputes would often arise between the fishermen, were there not some written or unwritten, universal, undisputed law applicable to all cases.
(b) _Dialects of the Neapolitan Mainland._--The Calabrian (by which is to be understood more particularly the vernacular group of the two Further Calabrias) may be fairly considered as a continuation of the Sicilian type, as is seen from the following examples:--_cori_, cuore; _petra_; _fímmina_, femina; _vuce_, voce; _unure_, onore; _figghiu_, figlio; _spadde_, spalle; _trizza_, treccia. Both Sicilian and Calabrian is the reducing of _rl_ to _rr_ (Sicil. _parrari_, Cal. _parrare_, parlare, &c.). The final vowel -_e_ is reduced to -_i_, but is preserved in the more southern part, as is seen from the above examples. Even the _h_ for _s_ = _fj_, as in _huri_ (Sicil. _suri_, fiore), which is characteristic in Calabrian, has its forerunners in the island (see _Arch._ ii. 456). And, in the same way, though the dominant varieties of Calabria seem to cling to the _mb_ (it sometimes happens that _mm_ takes the form of _mb_: _imbiscare_ = Sicil. '_mmiscari_ 'immischiare', &c.) and _nd_, as opposed to the _mm_, _nn_, of the whole of Southern Italy and Sicily, we must remember, firstly, that certain other varieties have, e.g. _granne_, Ital. grande, and _chiummu_, Ital. piombo; and secondly, that even in Sicily (at Milazzo, Barcelona, and as far as Messina) districts are to be found in which _nd_ is used. Along the coast of the extreme south of Italy, when once we have passed the interruptions caused by the Basilisco type (so called from the Basilicata), the Sicilian vocalism again presents itself in the Otrantine, especially in the seaboard of Capo di Leuca. In the Lecce variety of the Otrantine the vocalism which has just been described as Sicilian also keeps its ground in the main (cf. Morosi, _Arch._ iv.): _sira_, sera; _leítu_, oliveto; _pilu_; _ura_, ora; _dulure_. Nay more, the Sicilian phenomenon of _lj_ into _ghj_ (_figghiu_, figlio, &c.) is well marked in Terra d' Otranto and also in Terra di Bari, and even extends through the Capitanata and the Basilicata (cf. D' Ovidio, _Arch._ iv. 159-160). As strongly marked in the Terra d'Otranto is the insular phenomenon of _ll_ into _dd_ (_dr_), which is also very widely distributed through the Neapolitan territories on the eastern side of the Apennines, sending outshoots even to the Abruzzo. But in Terra d'Otranto we are already in the midst of the diphthongs of _e_ and of _o_, both non-positional and positional, the development or permanence of which is determined by the quality of the unaccented final vowel,--as generally happens in the dialects of the south. The diphthongs of _e_ and _o_, determined by final -_i_ and -_u_, are also characteristic of central and northern Calabria (_viecchiu_ -_i_, vecchio -a, _vecchia_ -_e_, vecchia -e; _buonu_ -_i_, _bona_ -_e_, &c. &c.). Thus there comes to be a treatment of the vowels, peculiar to the two peninsulas of Calabria and Salent. The diphthongal product of the _o_ is here _ue_. The following are examples from the Lecce variety of the dialect: _core_, pl. _cueri_; _metu_, _mieti_, _mete_, mieto, mieti, miete (Lat. metere); _sentu_, _sienti_, _sente_; _olu_, _uéli_, _ola_, volo, voli, vola; _mordu_, _muerdi_, _morde_. The _ue_ recalls the fundamental reduction which belongs to the Gallic (not to speak of the Spanish) regions, and stretches through the north of the Terra di Bari, where there are other diphthongs curiously suggestive of the Gallic: e.g. at Bitonto alongside of _lueche_, luogo, _suenne_, sonno, we have the _oi_ and the _ai_ from _i_ or _e_ of the previous phase (_vecoine_, vicino), and the _au_ from _o_ of the previous phase (_anaure_, onore), besides a diphthongal disturbance of the _á_. Here also occurs the change of _á_ into an _e_ more or less pure (thus, at Cisternino, _scunsulête_, sconsolata; at Canosa di Puglia, _arruête_, arrivata; _n-ghèpe_, "in capa," that is, in capo); to which may be added the continual weakening or elision of the unaccented vowels not only at the end but in the body of the word (thus, at Bitonto, _vendett_, _spranz_). A similar type meets us as we cross into Capitanata (Cerignola: _graite_ and _grei_-, creta (but also _peite_, piede, &c.), _coute_, coda (but also _foure_, fuorí, &c.); _voine_, vino, and similarly _poile_, pelo (Neap. _pilo_), &c.; _fueke_, fuoco; _caretäte_, carità, _parlä_, parlare, &c.); such forms being apparently the outposts of the Abruzzan, which, however, is only reached through the Molise--a district not very populous even now, and still more thinly peopled in bygone days--whose prevailing forms of speech in some measure interrupt the historical continuity of the dialects of the Adriatic versant, presenting, as it were, an irruption from the other side of the Apennines. In the head valley of the Molise, at Agnone, the legitimate precursors of the Abruzzan vernaculars reappear (_feáfa_, fava, _stufeáte_ and -_uote_, stufo, annojato, _feá_, fare; _chiezza_, piazza, _chiegne_, piangere, _cuene_, cane; _puole_, palo, _pruote_, prato, _cuone_, cane; _veire_ and _vaire_, vero, _moile_, melo, and similarly voive and veive, vivo; _deune_, dono, _deuva_, doga; _minaure_, minore; _cuerpe_, corpo, but _cuolle_). The following are pure Abruzzan examples. (1) From Bucchianico (Abruzzo Citeriore): _veive_, vivo; _rraje_, re; _allaure_, allora; _craune_, corona; _circhê_, cercare; _mêle_, male; _grênne_, grande; _quênne_; but _'nsultate_, insultata; _strade_, strada (where again it is seen that the reduction of the _á_ depends on the quality of the final unaccented vowel, and that it is not produced exclusively by _i_, which would give rise to a further reduction: _scillarite_, scellerati; _ampire_, impári). (2) From Pratola Peligna (Abruzzo Ulteriore II.); _maje_, mia; _'naure_, onore; _'njuriéte_, inguriata; _desperéte_, disperata ( alongside of _vennecá_, vendicare). It almost appears that a continuity with Emilian[11] ought to be established across the Marches (where another irruption of greater "Italianity" has taken place; a third of more dubious origin has been indicated for Venice, C. 1); see _Arch._ ii., 445. A negative characteristic for Abruzzan is the absence of the change in the third syllable of the combinations _pl_, _bl_, _fl_ (into _kj_, _j-_, _s_) and the reason seems evident. Here the _pj_, _bj_ and _fj_ themselves appear to be modern or of recent reduction--the ancient formulae sometimes occurring intact (as in the Bergamasc for Upper Italy), e.g. _plánje_ and _pránje_ alongside of _piánje_, piagnere, _branghe_ alongside of _bianghe_, bianco (Fr. _blanc_), _flume_ and _frume_ alongside _fiume_, fiume. To the south of the Abruzzi begins and in the Abruzzi grows prominent that contrast in regard to the formulae _alt ald_ (resolved in the Neapolitan and Sicilian into _aut_, &c., just as in the Piedmontese, &c.), by which the types _aldare_, altare, and _calle_, caldo, are reached.[12] For the rest, when the condition and connexions of the vowel system still retained by so large a proportion of the dialects of the eastern versant of the Neapolitan Apennines, and the difference which exists in regard to the preservation of the unaccented vowels between the Ligurian and the Gallo-Italic forms of speech on the other versant of the northern Apennines, are considered, one cannot fail to see how much justice there is in the longitudinal or Apenninian partition of the Italian dialects indicated by Dante.--But, to continue, in the Basilicata, which drains into the Gulf of Taranto, and may be said to lie within the Apennines, not only is the elision of final unaccented vowels a prevailing characteristic; there are also frequent elisions of the unaccented vowels within the word. Thus at Matera: _sintenn la femn chessa côs_, sentendo la femina questa cosa; _disprât_, disperata; at Saponara di Grumento: _uomnn' scilrati_, uomini scellerati; _mnetta_, vendetta.--But even if we return to the Mediterranean versant and, leaving the Sicilian type of the Calabrias, retrace our steps till we pass into the Neapolitan pure and simple, we find that even in Naples the unaccented final vowels behave badly, the labial turning to _e_ (_bielle_, bello) and even the _a_ (_bella_) being greatly weakened. And here occurs a Palaeo-Italic instance which is worth mention: while Latin was accustomed to drop the u of its nominative only in presence of _r_ (_gener_ from *gener-u-s, _vir_ from *vir-u-s; cf. the Tuscan or Italian apocopated forms _véner_ = vénere, _venner_ = vennero, &c.), Oscan and Umbrian go much farther: Oscan, hurz = *hort-u-s, Lat. hortus; Umbr. _pihaz_, piatus; _emps_, emptus, &c. In Umbrian inscriptions we find _u_ alternating with the _a_ of the nom. sing. fem. and plur. neut. In complete contrast with the Sicilian vocalism is the Neapolitan _e_ for unaccented and particularly final _i_ of the Latin and Neo-Latin or Italian phases (e.g. _viene_, vieni; cf. _infra_), to say nothing further of the regular diphthongization, within certain limits, of accented _e_ or _o_ in position (_apierte_, aperto, fem. _aperta_; _muorte_, morto, fem. _morta_, &c.).--In the quasi-morphological domain it is to be noted how the Siculo-Calabrian _u_ for the ancient _o_ and _u_, and the Siculo-Calabrian _i_ for the ancient _e_, _i_, are also still found in the Neapolitan, and, in particular, that they alternate with _o_ and _e_ in a manner that is determined by the difference of termination. Thus _cosetore_, cucitore, pl. _coseture_ (i.e. _coseturi_, the _-i_ passing into _e_ in keeping with the Neapolitan characteristic already mentioned); _russe_, Ital. rosso, _-i_; _rossa_ _-e_, Ital. rossa -e; _noce_, _noce_, pl. _nuce_; _crede_, io credo; _cride_ (*cridi), tu credi; _crede_, egli crede; _nigre_, but _negra_. Entry: 3
Natural clays, even when most pure, show a considerable range of composition, and hence cannot be regarded as consisting of a single mineral; clay is a _rock_, and has that variability which characterizes all rocks. Of the essential properties of clay some are merely physical, and depend on the minute size of the particles. If any rock be taken (even a piece of pure quartz) and crushed to a very fine powder, it will show some of the peculiarities of clays; for example, it will be plastic, retentive of moisture, impermeable to water, and will shrink to some extent if the moist mass be kneaded, and then allowed to dry. It happens, however, that many rocks are not disintegrated to this extreme degree by natural processes, and weathering invariably accompanies disintegration. Quartz, for example, has little or no cleavage, and is not attacked by the atmosphere. It breaks up into fragments, which become rounded by attrition, but after they reach a certain minuteness are borne along by currents of water or air in a state of suspension, and are not further reduced in size. Hence sands are more coarse grained than clays. A great number of rock-forming minerals, however, possess a good cleavage, so that when bruised they split into thin fragments; many of these minerals decompose somewhat readily, yielding secondary minerals, which are comparatively soft and have a scaly character, with eminently perfect cleavages, which facilitate splitting into exceedingly thin plates. The principal substances of this description are kaolin, muscovite and chlorite. Kaolin and muscovite are formed principally after felspar (and the felspars are the commonest minerals of all crystalline rocks); also from nepheline, leucite, scapolite and a variety of other rock-forming minerals. Chlorite arises from biotite, augite and hornblende. Serpentine, which may be fibrous or scaly, is a secondary product of olivine and certain pyroxenes. Clays consist essentially of the above ingredients (although serpentine is not known to take part in them to any extent, it is closely allied to chlorite). At the same time other substances are produced as decomposition goes on. They are principally finely divided quartz, epidote, zoisite, rutile, limonite, calcite, pyrites, and very small particles of these are rarely absent from natural clays. These fine-grained materials are at first mixed with broken and more or less weathered rock fragments and coarser mineral particles in the soil and subsoil, but by the action of wind and rain they are swept away and deposited in distant situations. "Loess" is a fine calcareous clay, which has been wind-borne, and subsequently laid down on the margins of dry steppes and deserts. Most clays are water-borne, having been carried from the surface of the land by rain and transported by the brooks and rivers into lakes or the sea. In this state the fine particles are known as "mud." They are deposited where the currents are checked and the water becomes very still. If temporarily laid down in other situations they are ultimately lifted again and removed. A little clay, stirred up with water in a glass vessel, takes hours to settle, and even after two or three days some remains in suspension; in fact, it has been suggested that in such cases the clay forms a sort of "colloidal solution" in the water. Traces of dissolved salts, such as common salt, gypsum or alum, greatly accelerate deposition. For these reasons the principal gathering places of fine pure clays are deep, still lakes, and the sea bottom at considerable distances from the shore. The coarser materials settle nearer the land, and the shallower portions of the sea floor are strewn with gravel and sand, except in occasional depressions and near the mouths of rivers where mud may gather. Farther out the great mud deposits begin, extending from 50 to 200 m. from the land, according to the amount of sediment brought in, and the rate at which the water deepens. A girdle of mud accumulations encircles all the continents. These sediments are fine and tenacious; their principal components, in addition to clay, being small grains of quartz, zircon, tourmaline, hornblende, felspar and iron compounds. Their typical colour is blackish-blue, owing to the abundance of sulphuretted hydrogen; when fresh they have a sulphurous odour, when weathered they are brown, as their iron is present as hydrous oxides (limonite, &c). These deposits are tenanted by numerous forms of marine life, and the sulphur they contain is derived from decomposing organic matter. Occasionally water-logged plant débris is mingled with the mud. In a few places a red colour prevails, the iron being mostly oxidized; elsewhere the muds are green owing to abundant glauconite. Traced landwards the muds become more sandy, while on their outer margins they grade into the abysmal deposits, such as the globigerina ooze (see OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY). Near volcanoes they contain many volcanic minerals, and around coral islands they are often in large part calcareous. Entry: CLAY
To be admissible in evidence a contract of marine insurance must be embodied in a document called a policy, which must specify the name of the assured (or of his agent in the effecting of the policy), the objects insured, and the risk insured against, the voyage or time (or both) covered, the sum insured, the name of the assurers. The signature of the assurer is necessary; it is found at the end of the policy, and the assurer is often on this account called the _underwriter_. The objects insured must be designated with reasonable certainty, regard being had to customary usage. The undertaking to insure is usually expressed by saying that the insured or his agent "doth make assurance and cause himself to be insured." The risks are either the whole body of maritime perils detailed above, or any one or set of these, or any other named peril against which the assured desires protection. There is no restriction by law of the length of voyage that may be insured, but time policies are, subject to the Finance Act 1901, invalid if made for more than one year; a voyage and a period of time may be covered on one policy. Policies are classed as "time" or "voyage" policies. It is not necessary to state in the policy the value of the objects insured, but generally the value is given; policies are therefore classed as "valued" or "unvalued," the latter being often called "open" policies. The values of objects insured under open or unvalued policies are the insurable values given above. As it frequently happens that merchants desire to have all their shipments of whatever nature covered, by whatever vessel they may come, they require insurance in general terms; such a policy is termed a "floating" policy. It states the limits of voyage and value covered by the underwriter, and the class of ships to be employed. The particulars of each shipment are declared as the shipments occur, and in the order of despatch or shipment, the declarations being usually endorsed on the policy. All shipments within the terms of the policy must be declared at their honest value, or in accordance with the special provisions of the policy, if any. An omission or erroneous declaration may be corrected even after loss or arrival, provided it was made in good faith. Entry: A
The illusion of the finite--the illusion of sense, imagination and passion, which, in Bacon's language, tends to make men judge of things _ex analogia hominis_ and not _ex analogia universi_, which raises the individual life, and even the present moment of the individual life, with its passing feelings, into the standard for measuring the universe--this, in the eyes of Spinoza, is the source of all error and evil to man. On the other hand, his highest good is to live the universal life of reason, or what is the same thing, to view all things from their centre in God, and to be moved only by the passion for good in general, "the intellectual love of God." In the treatise _De Emendatione Intellectus_, Spinoza takes up this contrast in the first instance from its moral side. "All our felicity or infelicity is founded on the nature of the object to which we are joined by love." To love the things that perish is to be in continual trouble and disturbance of passion; it is to be full of envy and hatred towards others who possess them; it is to be ever striving after that which, when we attain it, does not satisfy us; or lamenting over the loss of that which inevitably passes away from us; only "love to an object that is infinite and eternal feeds the soul with a changeless and unmingled joy." But again our love rests upon our knowledge; if we saw things as they really are we should love only the highest object. It is because sense and imagination give to the finite an independence and substantiality that do not belong to it, that we waste our love upon it as if it were infinite. And as the first step towards truth is to understand our error, so Spinoza proceeds to explain the defects of common sense, or in other words, of that first and unreflected view of the world which he, like Plato, calls opinion. Opinion is a kind of knowledge derived partly from hearsay, and partly from _experientia vaga_. It consists of vague and general conceptions of things, got either from the report of others or from an experience which has not received any special direction from intelligence. The mind that has not got beyond the stage of opinion takes things as they present themselves in its individual experience; and its beliefs grow up by association of whatever happens to have been found together in that experience. And as the combining principle of the elements of opinion is individual and not universal, so its conception of the world is at once fragmentary and accidental. It does not see things in their connexion with the unity of the whole, and hence it cannot see them in their true relation to each other. "I assert expressly," says Spinoza, "that the mind has no adequate conception either of itself or of external things, but only a confused knowledge of them, so long as it perceives them only in the common order of nature, i.e. so long as it is _externally determined_ to contemplate this or that object by the accidental concourse of things, and so long as it is not _internally_ determined by the unity of thought in which it considers a number of things to understand their agreements, differences and contradictions."[33] Entry: A