BLACKPOOL, a municipal and county borough and seaside resort in the Blackpool parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 46 m. N. of Liverpool, served by the Lancashire & Yorkshire, and London & North Western railways. Pop. (1891) 23,846; (1901) 47,346. The town, which is quite modern, contains many churches and chapels of all denominations, a town hall, public libraries, the Victoria hospital, three piers, theatres, ball-rooms, and other places of public amusement, including a lofty tower, resembling the Eiffel Tower of Paris. The municipality maintains an electric tram service. There are handsome promenades along the sea front, which command fine views. Extensive works upon these, affording a sea front unsurpassed by that of any English watering-place, were completed in 1905. The beach is sandy and the bathing good. The borough was created in 1876 (county borough, 1904), and is governed by a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, exclusive of foreshore, 3496 acres; including foreshore, 4244 acres. Entry: BLACKPOOL
At Batavia the difference between winter and summer is comparatively small. Elsewhere there is a tendency for the double period, usually so prominent in summer, to become less pronounced in winter, the afternoon minimum tending to disappear. Even in summer the double period is not prominent in the arctic climate of Karasjok or on the top of the Eiffel Tower. The diurnal variation in summer at the latter station is shown graphically in the top curve of fig. 1. It presents a remarkable resemblance to the adjacent curve, which gives the diurnal variation at mid-winter at the Bureau Central. The resemblance between these curves is much closer than that between the Bureau Central's own winter and summer curves. All three Paris curves show three peaks, the first and third representing the ordinary forenoon and afternoon maxima. In summer at the Bureau Central the intermediate peak nearly disappears in the profound afternoon depression, but it is still recognizable. This three-peaked curve is not wholly peculiar to Paris, being seen, for instance, at Lisbon in summer. The December and June curves for Kew are good examples of the ordinary nature of the difference between midwinter and midsummer. The afternoon minimum at Kew gradually deepens as midsummer approaches. Simultaneously the forenoon maximum occurs earlier and the afternoon maximum later in the day. The two last curves in the diagram contrast the diurnal variation at Kew in potential gradient and in barometric pressure for the year as a whole. The somewhat remarkable resemblance between the diurnal variation for the two elements, first remarked on by J.D. Everett (19), is of interest in connexion with recent theoretical conclusions by J.P. Elster and H.F.K. Geitel and by H. Ebert. Entry: 7
7. In Table III. the diurnal inequality is shown for "winter" and "summer" respectively. In all cases the mean value for the 24 hours is taken as 100. By "summer" is meant April to September at Sodankylä, Greenwich and Batavia; May to August at Kew, Bureau Central (Paris), Eiffel Tower and Perpignan; and May to July at Karasjok. "Winter" includes October to March at Sodankylä, Greenwich and Batavia; November to February at Kew and Bureau Central; November to January at Karasjok, and December and January at Perpignan. Mean results from March, April, September and October at Kew are assigned to "Equinox." Entry: 7
The Paris Exhibition of 1889 marked an important change in the policy which had previously characterized the management of these gatherings. The funds were contributed partly by the state, which voted 17,000,000 francs, and by the municipality of Paris, which gave 8,000,000. A guarantee fund amounting to 23,124,000 francs was raised, and on this security a sum of 18,000,000 francs was obtained and paid into the coffers of the administration. The bankers who advanced this sum recouped themselves by the issue of 1,200,000 "bons," each of 25 francs, Every bon contained 25 admissions, valued at 1 franc, and certain privileges in the shape of participation in a lottery, the grand prix being £20,000. The calculations of the promoters were tolerably accurate. The attendances reached the then unprecedented number of 32,350,297, of whom 25,398,609 paid in entrance tickets and 2,723,366 entered by season tickets. A sum of 2,307,999 francs was obtained by concessions for restaurants and "side-shows," upon which the administration relied for much of the attractiveness of the exhibition. The total expenditure was 44,000,000 francs, and there was a small surplus. The space covered in the Champ de Mars, the Trocadero, the Palais d'Industrie, the Invalides and the Quai d'Orsay was 72 acres, as compared with 66 acres in 1878 and 41 acres in 1867. Amongst the novelties was the Eiffel Tower, 1000 ft. in height, and a faithful reproduction of a street in Cairo. The system of international juries was continued, but instead of gold, silver and copper medals, diplomas of various merits were granted, each entitling the holder to a uniform medal of bronze. Some of the "side-shows," although perhaps pecuniary successes, did not add to the dignity of the exhibition. The date at which it was held, the Centenary of the French Revolution, did not commend it to several European governments. Austria, Hungary, Belgium, China, Egypt, Spain, Great Britain, Italy, Luxemburg, Holland, Peru, Portugal, Rumania and Russia took part, but not officially, while Germany, Sweden, Turkey and Montenegro were conspicuous by their absence. On the other hand, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, the United States, Greece, Guatemala, Morocco, Mexico, Nicaragua, Norway, Paraguay, Salvador, the South African Republic, Switzerland, Uruguay and Venezuela sent commissioners, who were accredited to the government of the French Republic. The total number of exhibitors was 61,722, of which France contributed 33,937, and the rest of the world 27,785. The British and colonial section was under the management of the Society of Arts, which obtained a guarantee fund of £16,800, and, in order to recoup itself for its expenditure, made a charge to exhibitors of 5s. per sq. ft. for the space occupied. There were altogether 1149 British exhibitors, of whom 429 were in the Fine Arts section. One of the features of the exhibition was the number of congresses and conferences held in connexion with it. Entry: A
Where foundations have to be carried down to a considerable depth in water-bearing strata, or through the alluvial bed of a river, to reach a hard stratum, bottomless caissons sunk by excavating under compressed air are employed. The caisson at the bottom, forming the working chamber, is usually provided with a strong roof, round the top of which, when the caisson is floated into a river, plate-iron sides are erected forming an upper open caisson, inside which the pier or quay-wall is built up out of water, on the top of the roof, as the sinking proceeds. Shafts through the roof up to the open air provide access for men and materials to the working chamber, through an air-lock consisting of a small chamber with an air-tight door at each end, enabling locking into and out of the compressed-air portion to be readily effected, on the same principle as a water-lock on a canal. When a sufficiently reliable stratum has been reached, the men leave the working chamber; and it is filled with concrete through the shafts, the bottomless caisson remaining embedded in the work. The foundations for the two river piers of the Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, carried down to the solid rock, 78 and 45 ft. respectively below high-water, by means of bottomless timber caissons with compressed air, were an early instance of this method of carrying out subaqueous foundations; whilst the Antwerp quay-walls, commenced many years ago in the river Scheldt at some distance out from the right bank, and the foundations of six of the piers supporting the cantilevers of the Forth Bridge, carried down to rock between 64 and 89 ft. below high-water, are notable examples of works founded under water within wrought iron bottomless caissons by the aid of compressed air. The foundations of the two piers of the Eiffel Tower adjoining the Seine were carried down through soft water-bearing strata to a depth of 33 ft. by means of wrought iron bottomless caissons sunk by the help of compressed air; and the deep foundations under the sills of the new large Florida lock at Havre (see DOCK) were laid underneath the water logged alluvial strata close to the Seine estuary by similar means. Workmen, after emerging from such caissons, sometimes exhibit symptoms of illness which is known as _caisson disease_ (_q.v._). Entry: CAISSON
As to the possibility of spreading weights, we have as an example the chimney at Adkin's Soap Works in Birmingham, 312 ft. high, so arranged that its pressure on the foundations is only 1½ tons per foot super.; also the great St Rollox chimney at Glasgow, which has a pressure of 1¾ tons; the weight of the Eiffel Tower (7500 tons) is so spread over 4 bases, each 130 ft. square, that the pressure is only .117 ton, or 2-1/3 cwt., per foot super. The Tower Bridge has a load of 16 tons per foot on the granite bed under the columns of towers, reduced by spreading to an actual pressure on the clay foundation of 4 tons. The piers under the Holborn Viaduct have a load of 2¼ tons only, those of the Imperial Institute 2¼ tons, and those of the destructor cells and chimney shaft at Great Yarmouth 4 tons 6¾ cwt. per foot super. From these various examples it would appear that on sound clay or gravel foundation a load of from 2¼ to 4 tons may be employed with safety. Entry: A
In the potential curves of the diagram the ordinates represent the hourly values expressed--as in Tables II. and III.--as percentages of the mean value for the day. If this be overlooked, a wrong impression may be derived as to the absolute amplitudes of the changes. The Kew curves, for instance, might suggest that the range (maximum less minimum hourly value) was larger in June than in December. In reality the December range was 82, the June only 57 volts; but the mean value of the potential was 243 in December as against 111 in June. So again, in the case of the Paris curves, the absolute value of the diurnal range in summer was much greater for the Eiffel Tower than for the Bureau Central, but the mean voltage was 2150 at the former station and only 134 at the latter. Entry: 7
EHUD ELBERFELD EIBENSTOCK ELBEUF EICHBERG, JULIUS ELBING EICHENDORFF, JOSEPH, FREIHERR VON ELBOW EICHHORN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED ELBURZ EICHHORN, KARL FRIEDRICH ELCHE EICHSTÄTT ELCHINGEN EICHWALD, KARL EDUARD VON ELDAD BEN MA[H.]LI EIDER (river of Prussia) ELDER (ruler or officer) EIDER (duck) ELDER (shrubs and trees) EIFEL ELDON, JOHN SCOTT EIFFEL TOWER EL DORADO EILDON HILLS ELDUAYEN, JOSÉ DE EILENBURG ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE EINBECK ELEATIC SCHOOL EINDHOVEN ELECAMPANE EINHARD ELECTION (politics) EINHORN, DAVID ELECTION (English law choice) EINSIEDELN ELECTORAL COMMISSION EISENACH ELECTORS EISENBERG ELECTRA EISENERZ ELECTRICAL MACHINE EISLEBEN ELECTRIC EEL EISTEDDFOD ELECTRICITY EJECTMENT ELECTRICITY SUPPLY EKATERINBURG ELECTRIC WAVES EKATERINODAR ELECTROCHEMISTRY EKATERINOSLAV (Russian government) ELECTROCUTION EKATERINOSLAV (Russian town) ELECTROKINETICS EKHOF, KONRAD ELECTROLIER EKRON ELECTROLYSIS ELABUGA ELECTROMAGNETISM ELAM ELECTROMETALLURGY ELAND ELECTROMETER ELASTICITY ELECTRON ELATERITE ELECTROPHORUS ELATERIUM ELECTROPLATING ELBA ELECTROSCOPE ELBE Entry: EHUD
The prince's life after this date was full of conspicuous public appearances. In 1885 he visited Ireland at a time of much political excitement, and was received enthusiastically in many quarters and without symptoms of ill-will in any. In 1886 he filled the presidency of the Indian and Colonial Exhibition, opened the Mersey Tunnel, and laid the first stone of the Tower Bridge. In 1887 a large share of the arrangements for the queen's Jubilee devolved upon him. On the 27th of July 1589 his eldest daughter, Princess Louise, was married to the duke of Fife. In the autumn he paid a semi-incognito visit to Paris, where he was always highly popular, viewed the Exhibition, and ascended the Eiffel Tower. In 1890 he opened the Forth Bridge. On the 14th of January 1892, however, a heavy blow fell upon him and his house by the death of his eldest son, Prince Albert Victor, duke of Clarence, after a brief illness. The young prince, who with his brother George had made the tour of the world (1879-1882) in H.M.S. "Bacchante," and after a short career at Oxford and Cambridge was just settling down to play his part in public life, had recently become engaged to Princess Victoria Mary of Teck (b. May 26, 1867), and the popularity of the heir to the crown had been increased by the expression of his satisfaction at his son's bride being an English princess. On the 6th of July 1893 the broken thread was reunited by her marriage to Prince George, duke of York. Entry: EDWARD
And he climbed with the lad up the Eiffelberg >Tower. "This," cried the Mayor, "is your town's darkest hour! The time for all Whos who have blood that is red to come to the aid of their country!" he said. "We've GOT to make noises in greater amounts! So, open your mouth, lad! For every voice counts!" Thus he spoke as he climbed. When they got to the top, the lad cleared his throat and he shouted out, "YOPP!" And that Yopp... That one last small, extra Yopp put it over! Finally, at last! From the speck on that clover their voices were heard! They rang out clear and clean. And they elephant smiled. "Do you see what I mean?" They've proved they ARE persons, no matter how small. And their whole world was saved by the smallest of All!" "How true! Yes, how true," said the big kangaroo. "And, from now on, you know what I'm planning to do? From now on, I'm going to protect them with you!" And the young kangaroo in her pouch said, "ME TOO! From the sun in the summer. From rain when it's fall-ish, I'm going to protect them. No matter how small-ish!" -- Dr. Seuss "Horton Hears a Who"
9. Table V. gives some data for the 24-hour and 12-hour Fourier coefficients, which will serve to illustrate the diversity between different stations. In this table, unlike Table IV., amplitudes are all expressed as decimals of the mean value of the potential gradient for the corresponding season. "Winter" means generally the four midwinter, and "summer" the four midsummer, months; but at Karasjok three, and at Kremsmünster six, months are included in each season. The results for the Sonnblick are derived from a comparatively small number of days in August and September. At Potsdam the data represent the arithmetic means derived from the Fourier analysis for the individual months comprising the season. The 1862-1864 data from Kew--due to J.D. Everett (19)--are based on "all" days; the others, except Karasjok to some extent, represent electrically quiet days. The cause of the large difference between the two sets of data for c1 at Kew is uncertain. The potential gradient is in all cases lower in summer than winter, and thus the reduction in c1 in summer would appear even larger than in Table V. if the results were expressed in absolute measure. At Karasjok and Kremsmünster the seasonal variation in a1 seems comparatively small, but at Potsdam and the Bureau Central it is as large as at Kew. Also, whilst the winter values of a1 are fairly similar at the several stations the summer values are widely different. Except at Karasjok, where the diurnal changes seem somewhat irregular, the relative amplitude of the 12-hour term is considerably greater in summer than in winter. The values of a2 at the various stations differ comparatively little, and show but little seasonal change. Thus the 12-hour term has a much greater uniformity than the 24-hour term. This possesses significance in connexion with the view, supported by A.B. Chauveau (21), F. Exner (24) and others, that the 12-hour term is largely if not entirely a local phenomenon, due to the action of the lower atmospheric strata, and tending to disappear even in summer at high altitudes. Exner attributes the double daily maximum, which is largely a consequence of the 12-hour wave, to a thin layer near the ground, which in the early afternoon absorbs the solar radiation of shortest wave length. This layer he believes specially characteristic of arid dusty regions, while comparatively non-existent in moist climates or where foliage is luxuriant. In support of his theory Exner states that he has found but little trace of the double maximum and minimum in Ceylon and elsewhere. C. Nordmann (25) describes some similar results which he obtained in Algeria during August and September 1905. His station, Philippeville, is close to the shores of the Mediterranean, and sea breezes persisted during the day. The diurnal variation showed only a single maximum and minimum, between 5 and 6 P.M. and 4 and 5 A.M. respectively. So again, a few days' observations on the top of Mont Blanc (4810 metres) by le Cadet (26) in August and September 1902, showed only a single period, with maximum between 3 and 4 P.M., and minimum about 3 A.M. Chauveau points to the reduction in the 12-hour term as compared to the 24-hour term on the Eiffel Tower, and infers the practical disappearance of the former at no great height. The close approach in the values for c1 in Table V. from the Bureau Central and the Eiffel Tower, and the reduction of c2 at the latter station, are unquestionably significant facts; but the summer value for c2 at Karasjok--a low level station--is nearly as small as that at the Eiffel Tower, and notably smaller than that at the Sonnblick (3100 metres). Again, Kew is surrounded by a large park, not devoid of trees, and hardly the place where Exner's theory would suggest a large value for c2, and yet the summer value of c2 at Kew is the largest in Table V. Entry: 9