DOWN, a smooth rounded hill, or more particularly an expanse of high rolling ground bare of trees. The word comes from the Old English _dún_, hill. This is usually taken to be a Celtic word. The Gaelic and Irish _dun_ and Welsh _din_ are specifically used of a hill-fortress, and thus frequently appear in place-names, e.g. Dumbarton, Dunkeld, and in the Latinized termination--_dunum_, e.g. Lugdunum, Lyons. The Old Dutch _duna_, which is the same word, was applied to the drifted sandhills which are a prevailing feature of the south-eastern coast of the North Sea (Denmark and the Low Countries), and the derivatives, Ger. _Düne_, modern Dutch _duin_, Fr. _dune_, have this particular meaning. The English "dune" is directly taken from the French. The low sandy tracts north and south of Yarmouth, Norfolk, are known as the "Dunes," which may be a corruption of the Dutch or French words. From "down," hill, comes the adverb "down," from above, in the earlier form "adown," i.e. off the hill. The word for the soft under plumage of birds is entirely different, and comes from the Old Norwegian _dun_, cf. _ædar-dun_, eider-down. For the system of chalk hills in England known as "The Downs" see DOWNS. Entry: DOWN
V. der Goltz, _Das Volk in Waffen_ (1883, new ed., 1898, English translation, P.A. Ashworth, _Nation in Arms_, London, 1887, new ed., 1907, French, _Nation armée_, Paris, 1889); Jähns, _Heeresverfassung und Völkerleben_ (Berlin, 1885); Berndt, _Die Zahl im Kriege_ (Vienna, 1895); F.N. Maude, _Evolution of Modern Strategy_ (1903), _Voluntary versus Compulsory Service_ (1897), and _War and the World's Life_ (1907); Pierron, _Méthodes de guerre_, vol. i.; Jähns, _Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften_ (an exhaustive bibliography, with critical notes); Troschke, _Mil. Litteratur seit den Befreiungskriegen_ (Berlin, 1870); T.A. Dodge, _Great Captains_ (_Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, Gustavus, Napoleon_); Bronsart v. Schellendorf (Eng. trans., War Office, 1905) _Duties of the General Staff_; Favé, _Histoire et tactique des trois armes_ (Liége, 1850); Maynert, _Gesch. des Kriegswesens u. der Heeresverfassungen in Europa_ (Vienna, 1869); Jähns, _Handbuch für eine Geschichte des Kriegswesens v. der Urzeit bis zur Renaissance_ (Leipzig, 1880); de la Barre Duparcq, _Histoire de l'art de la guerre avant l'usage de poudre_ (Paris, 1860); Rüstow and Köchly, _Geschichte des griechischen Kriegswesens_ (Aarau, 1852); Köchly and Rüstow, _Griechische Kriegsschriftsteller_ (Leipzig, 1855); Förster, in _Hermes_, xii. (1877); D.G. Hogarth, _Philip and Alexander_ (London, 1897); Macdougall, _Campaigns of Hannibal_ (London, 1858); Rüstow, _Heerwesen, &c., Julius Casars_ (Nordhausen, 1855); _Organ der M. Wissensch. Verein_ of 1877 (Vienna); Polybius literature of the 17th and 18th centuries; supplement to _M.W.B._, 1883; the works of Xenophon, Aelian, Arrian, Vegetius, Polybius, Caesar, &c. (see Köchly and Rüstow: a collection was made in the 15th century, under the title _Veteres de re militari scriptores_, 1487); Oman, _A History of the Art of War: Middle Ages_ (London, 1898); Delpech, _La Tactique au XIII
_Commerce_.--From the first colonization of the island down to the 14th century the trade was in the hands of native Icelanders and Norsemen; in the 15th century it was chiefly in the hands of the English, in the 16th of Germans from the Hanse towns. From 1602 to 1786 commerce was a monopoly of the Danish government; in the latter year it was declared free to all Danish subjects and in 1854 free to all nations. Since 1874, when Iceland obtained her own administration, commerce has increased considerably. Thus the total value of the imports and exports together in 1849 did not exceed £170,000; while in 1891-1895 the imports averaged £356,000 and the exports £340,000. In 1902 imports were valued at £596,193 and exports at £511,083. Trade is almost entirely with Denmark, the United Kingdom, and Norway and Sweden, in this order according to value. The principal native products exported are live sheep, horses, salt meat, wool and hides, to which must be added the fish products--cod, train-oil, herring and salmon--eiderdown and woollen wares. The spinning, weaving and knitting of wool is a widespread industry, and the native tweed (_vaðmal_) is the principal material for the clothing of the inhabitants. The imports consist principally of cereals and flour, coffee, sugar, ale, wines and spirits, tobacco, manufactured wares, iron and metal wares, timber, salt, coal, &c. The money, weights and measures in use are the same as in Denmark. The Islands Bank in Reykjavik (1904) is authorized to issue bank-notes up to £133,900 in total value. Entry: ICELAND
One of the greatest and most remarkable literary enterprises of the 18th century, the famous French _Encyclopédie_, originated in a French translation of Ephraim Chambers's _Cyclopaedia_, begun in 1743 and finished in 1745 by John Mills, an Englishman resident in France, assisted by Gottfried Sellius, a very learned native of Danzig, who, after being a professor at Halle and Göttingen, and residing in Holland, had settled in Paris. They applied to Lebreton, the king's printer, to publish the work, to fulfil the formalities required by French law, with which, as foreigners, they were not acquainted, and to solicit a royal privilege. This he obtained, but in his own name alone. Mills complained so loudly and bitterly of this deception that Lebreton had to acknowledge formally that the privilege belonged _en toute propriété_ to John Mills. But, as he again took care not to acquaint Mills with the necessary legal formalities, this title soon became invalid. Mills then agreed to grant him part of his privilege, and in May 1745 the work was announced as _Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire universel des arts et des sciences_, folio, four volumes of 250 to 260 sheets each, with a fifth of at least 120 plates, and a vocabulary or list of articles in French, Latin, German, Italian and Spanish, with other lists for each language explained in French, so that foreigners might easily find any article wanted. It was to be published by subscription at 135 livres, but for large paper copies 200 livres, the first volume to be delivered in June 1746, and the two last at the end of 1748. The subscription list, which was considerable, closed on the 31st of December 1745. Mills demanded an account, which Lebreton, who had again omitted certain formalities, insultingly refused. Mills brought an action against him, but before it was decided Lebreton procured the revocation of the privilege as informal, and obtained another for himself dated the 21st of January 1746. Thus, for unwittingly contravening regulations with which his unscrupulous publisher ought to have made him acquainted, Mills was despoiled of the work he had both planned and executed, and had to return to England. Jean Paul de Gua de Malves, professor of philosophy in the college of France (born at Carcassonne in 1713, died on the 15th of June 1785), was then engaged as editor merely to correct errors and add new discoveries. But he proposed a thorough revision, and obtained the assistance of many learned men and artists, among whom Desessarts names Louis, Condillac, d'Alembert and Diderot. But the publishers did not think his reputation high enough to ensure success, withheld their confidence, and often opposed his plans as too expensive. Tired at last of disputes, and too easily offended, de Gua resigned the editorship. The publishers, who had already made heavy advances, offered it to Diderot, who was probably recommended to them by his very well received _Dictionnaire universel de medicine_, Paris, 1746-1748, fol. 6 vols., published by Briasson, David and Durand, with notes and additions by Julien Busson, doctor regent of the faculty of medicine of Paris. It was a translation, made with the assistance of Eidous and Toussaint, of the celebrated work of Dr Robert James, inventor of the fever powders, _A Medicinal Dictionary_, London, 1743-1745, fol. 3 vols., 3275 pages and 98 plates, comprising a history of drugs, with chemistry, botany and natural history so far as they relate to medicine, and with an historical preface of 99 pages (in the translation 136). The proposed work was to have been similar in character. De Gua's papers were handed over to Diderot in great confusion. He soon persuaded the publishers to undertake a far more original and comprehensive work. His friend d'Alembert undertook to edit the mathematics. Other subjects were allotted to 21 contributors, each of whom received the articles on this subject in Mills' translation to serve as a basis for his work. But they were in most cases so badly composed and translated, so full of errors and omissions, that they were not used. The contributions were to be finished in three months, but none was ready in time, except Music by Rousseau, which he admits was hastily and badly done. Diderot was imprisoned at Vincennes, on the 29th of July 1749, for his _Lettre sur les aveugles_. He was closely confined for 28 days, and was then for three months and ten days a prisoner on parole in the castle. This did not stop the printing, though it caused delay. The prospectus by Diderot appeared in November 1750. The work was to form 8 vols. fol., with at least 600 plates. The first volume was published in July 1751, and delivered to the subscribers in August. The second appeared in January 1752. An _arrêt_ of the council, 9th of February, suppressed both volumes as injurious to the king's authority and to religion. Malesherbes, director-general of the Librairie, stopped the issue of volume ii., 9th of February, and on the 21st went with a _lettre de cachet_ to Lebreton's to seize the plates and the MSS., but did not find, says Barbier, even those of volume iii., as they had been taken to his own house by Diderot and one of the publishers. The Jesuits tried to continue the work, but in vain. It was less easy, says Grimm, than to ruin philosophers. The _Dictionnaire de Trévoux_ pronounced the completion of the _Encyclopédie_ impossible, and the project ridiculous (5th edition, 1752, iii, 750). The government had to request the editors to resume the work as one honourable to the nation. The marquis d'Argenson writes, 7th of May 1752, that Mme de Pompadour had been urging them to proceed, and at the end of June he reports them as again at work. Volume iii., rather improved by the delay, appeared in October 1753; and volume vii., completing G, in November 1757. The clamours against the work soon recommenced. D' Alembert retired in January 1758, weary of sermons, satires and intolerant and absurd censors. The parlement of Paris, by an _arrêt_, 23rd of January 1759, stopped the sale and distribution of the _Encyclopédie_, Helvetius's _De l'Esprit_, and six other books; and by an _arrêt_, 6th February, ordered them all to be burnt, but referred the _Encyclopédie_ for examination to a commission of nine. An _arrêt du conseil_, 7th of March, revoked the privilege of 1746, and stopped the printing. Volume viii. was then in the press. Malesherbes warned Diderot that he would have his papers seized next day; and when Diderot said he could not make a selection, or find a place of safety at such short notice, Malesherbes said, "Send them to me, they will not look for them there." This, according to Mme de Vandeul, Diderot's daughter, was done with perfect success. In the article Pardonner Diderot refers to these persecutions, and says, "In the space of some months we have seen our honour, fortune, liberty and life imperilled." Malesherbes, Choiseul and Mme de Pompadour protected the work; Diderot obtained private permission to go on printing, but with a strict charge not to publish any part until the whole was finished. The Jesuits were condemned by the parlement of Paris in 1762, and by the king in November 1764. Volume i. of plates appeared in 1762, and volumes viii. to xvii., ten volumes of text, 9408 pages, completing the work, with the 4th volume of plates in 1765, when there were 4250 subscribers. The work circulated freely in the provinces and in foreign countries, and was secretly distributed in Paris and Versailles. The general assembly of the clergy, on the 20th of June 1765, approved articles in which it was condemned, and on the 27th of September adopted a _mémoire_ to be presented to the king. They were forbidden to publish their acts which favoured the Jesuits, but Lebreton was required to give a list of his subscribers, and was put into the Bastille for eight days in 1766. A royal order was sent to the subscribers to deliver their copies to the lieutenant of police. Voltaire in 1774 relates that, at a _petit souper_ of the king at Trianon, there was a debate on the composition of gunpowder. Mme de Pompadour said she did not know how her rouge or her silk stockings were made. The duc de la Vallière regretted that the king had confiscated their encyclopaedias, which could decide everything. The king said he had been told that the work was most dangerous, but as he wished to judge for himself, he sent for a copy. Three servants with difficulty brought in the 21 volumes. The company found everything they looked for, and the king allowed the confiscated copies to be returned. Mme de Pompadour died on the 15th of April 1764. Lebreton had half of the property in the work, and Durand, David and Briasson had the rest. Lebreton, who had the largest printing office in Paris, employed 50 workmen in printing the last ten volumes. He had the articles set in type exactly as the authors sent them in, and when Diderot had corrected the last proof of each sheet, he and his foreman, hastily, secretly and by night, unknown to his partners in the work, cut out whatever seemed to them daring, or likely to give offence, mutilated most of the best articles without any regard to the consecutiveness of what was left, and burnt the manuscript as they proceeded. The printing of the work was nearly finished when Diderot, having to consult one of his great philosophical articles in the letter S, found it entirely mutilated. He was confounded, says Grimm, at discovering the atrocity of the printer; all the best articles were in the same confusion. This discovery put him into a state of frenzy and despair from rage and grief. His daughter never heard him speak coolly on the subject, and after twenty years it still made him angry. He believed that every one knew as well as he did what was wanting in each article, but in fact the mutilation was not perceived even by the authors, and for many years was known to few persons. Diderot at first refused to correct the remaining proofs, or to do more than write the explanations of the plates. He required, according to Mme de Vandeul, that a copy, now at St Petersburg with his library, should be printed with columns in which all was restored. The mutilations began as far back as the article Intendant. But how far, says Rosenkranz, this murderous, incredible and infamous operation was carried cannot now be exactly ascertained. Diderot's articles, not including those on arts and trades, were reprinted in Naigeon's edition (Paris, 1821, 8vo, 22 vols.). They fill 4132 pages, and number 1139, of which 601 were written for the last ten volumes. They are on very many subjects, but principally on grammar, history, morality, philosophy, literature and metaphysics. As a contributor, his special department of the work was philosophy, and arts and trades. He passed whole days in workshops, and began by examining a machine carefully, then he had it taken to pieces and put together again, then he watched it at work, and lastly worked it himself. He thus learned to use such complicated machines as the stocking and cut velvet looms. He at first received 1200 livres a year as editor, but afterwards 2500 livres a volume, besides a final sum of 20,000 livres. Although after his engagement he did not suffer from poverty as he had done before, he was obliged to sell his library in order to provide for his daughter. De Jaucourt spared neither time, trouble nor expense in perfecting the work, for which he received nothing, and he employed several secretaries at it for ten years. To pay them he had to sell his house in Paris, which Lebreton bought with the profits derived from De Jaucourt's work. All the publishers made large fortunes; their expenses amounted to 1,158,000 livres and their profits to 2,162,000. D'Alembert's "Discours Preliminaire," 45 pages, written in 1750, prefixed to the first volume, and delivered before the French Academy on his reception on the 19th of December 1754, consists of a systematic arrangement of the various branches of knowledge, and an account of their progress since their revival. His system, chiefly taken from Bacon, divides them into three classes, under memory, reason and imagination. Arts and trades are placed under natural history, superstition and magic under science de Dieu, and orthography and heraldry under logic. The literary world is divided into three corresponding classes--_érudits_, _philosophes_ and _beaux esprits_. As in Ephraim Chambers's _Cyclopaedia_, history and biography were excluded, except incidentally; thus Aristotle's life is given in the article Aristotelisme. The science to which an article belongs is generally named at the beginning of it, references are given to other articles, and the authors' names are marked by initials, of which lists are given in the earlier volumes, but sometimes their names are subscribed in full. Articles by Diderot have no mark, and those inserted by him as editor have an asterisk prefixed. Among the contributors were Voltaire, Euler, Marmontel, Montesquieu, D'Anville, D'Holbach and Turgot, the leader of the new school of economists which made its first appearance in the pages of the _Encyclopédie_. Louis wrote the surgery, Daubenton natural history, Eidous heraldry and art, Toussaint jurisprudence, and Condamine articles on South America. Entry: A
EPODE, in verse, the third part in an ode, which followed the strophe and the antistrophe, and completed the movement; it was called [Greek: epôdos periodos] by the Greeks. At a certain moment the choirs, which had chanted to right of the altar or stage and then to left of it, combined and sang in unison, or permitted the coryphaeus to sing for them all, standing in the centre. When, with the appearance of Stesichorus and the evolution of choral lyric, a learned and artificial kind of poetry began to be cultivated in Greece, a new form, the [Greek: eidos epôdikon], or epode-song, came into existence. It consisted of a verse of trimeter iambic, followed by a dimeter iambic, and it is reported that, although the epode was carried to its highest perfection by Stesichorus, an earlier poet, Archilochus, was really the inventor of this form. The epode soon took a firm place in choral poetry, which it lost when that branch of literature declined. But it extended beyond the ode, and in the early dramatists we find numerous examples of monologues and dialogues framed on the epodical system. In Latin poetry the epode was cultivated, in conscious archaism, both as a part of the ode and as an independent branch of poetry. Of the former class, the epithalamia of Catullus, founded on an imitation of Pindar, present us with examples of strophe, antistrophe and epode; and it has been observed that the celebrated ode of Horace, beginning _Quem virum aut heroa lyra vel acri_, possesses this triple character. But the word is now mainly familiar from an experiment of Horace in the second class, for he entitled his fifth book of odes _Epodon liber_ or the Book of Epodes. He says in the course of these poems, that in composing them he was introducing a new form, at least in Latin literature, and that he was imitating the effect of the iambic distichs invented by Archilochus. Accordingly we find the first ten of these epodes composed in alternate verses of iambic trimeter and iambic dimeter, thus:-- Entry: EPODE
EHUD ELBERFELD EIBENSTOCK ELBEUF EICHBERG, JULIUS ELBING EICHENDORFF, JOSEPH, FREIHERR VON ELBOW EICHHORN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED ELBURZ EICHHORN, KARL FRIEDRICH ELCHE EICHSTÄTT ELCHINGEN EICHWALD, KARL EDUARD VON ELDAD BEN MA[H.]LI EIDER (river of Prussia) ELDER (ruler or officer) EIDER (duck) ELDER (shrubs and trees) EIFEL ELDON, JOHN SCOTT EIFFEL TOWER EL DORADO EILDON HILLS ELDUAYEN, JOSÉ DE EILENBURG ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE EINBECK ELEATIC SCHOOL EINDHOVEN ELECAMPANE EINHARD ELECTION (politics) EINHORN, DAVID ELECTION (English law choice) EINSIEDELN ELECTORAL COMMISSION EISENACH ELECTORS EISENBERG ELECTRA EISENERZ ELECTRICAL MACHINE EISLEBEN ELECTRIC EEL EISTEDDFOD ELECTRICITY EJECTMENT ELECTRICITY SUPPLY EKATERINBURG ELECTRIC WAVES EKATERINODAR ELECTROCHEMISTRY EKATERINOSLAV (Russian government) ELECTROCUTION EKATERINOSLAV (Russian town) ELECTROKINETICS EKHOF, KONRAD ELECTROLIER EKRON ELECTROLYSIS ELABUGA ELECTROMAGNETISM ELAM ELECTROMETALLURGY ELAND ELECTROMETER ELASTICITY ELECTRON ELATERITE ELECTROPHORUS ELATERIUM ELECTROPLATING ELBA ELECTROSCOPE ELBE Entry: EHUD