Oh for one hour of blind old Dandolo, The octogenarian chief, Byzantium's conquering foe!
Leo Byzantius said, "What would you do, if you saw my wife, who scarce reaches up to my knees? . . . Yet," went he on, "as little as we are, when we fall out with each other, the city of Byzantium is not big enough to hold us."
_Time of Mahomet._--Thus at the time of Mahomet's advent the country was peopled by various tribes, some more or less settled under the governments of south Arabia, Kinda, Hira and Ghassan, these in turn depending on Abyssinia, Persia and Rome (i.e. Byzantium); others as in the Hejaz were ruled in smaller communities by members of leading families, while in various parts of the peninsula were wandering Arabs still maintaining the traditions of old family and tribal rule, forming no state, sometimes passing, as suited them, under the influence and protection of one or another of the greater powers. To these may be added a certain number of Jewish tribes and families deriving their origin partly from migrations from Palestine, partly from converts among the Arabs themselves. Mahomet appealed at once to religion and patriotism, or rather created a feeling for both. For Mahomet as a religious teacher and for the details of his career see MAHOMET. It is enough here to outline his actions in so far as he attempted to create a united, and then a conquering, Arabia. Though the external conquests of the Arabs belong more properly to the period of the caliphate, yet they were the natural outcome of the prophet's ideas. His idea of Arabia for the Arabians could only be realized by summoning the great kings of the surrounding nations to recognize Islam; otherwise Abyssinia, Persia and Rome (Byzantium) would continue their former endeavours to influence and control the affairs of the peninsula. Tradition tells that a few years before his death he did actually send letters to the emperor Heraclius, to the negus of Abyssinia, the king of Persia, and Cyrus, patriarch of Alexandria, the "Mukaukis" of Egypt, summoning them to accept Islam and threatening them with punishment in case of refusal. But the task of carrying out these threats fell to the lot of his successors; the work of the prophet was to be the subjugating and uniting of Arabia. This work, scarcely begun in Mecca, was really started after the migration to Medina by the formation of a party of men--the _Muhajirun_ (Refugees or Emigrants) and the _Ansar_ (Helpers or Defenders)--who accepted Mahomet as their religious leader. As the necessity of overcoming his enemies became urgent, this party became military. A few successes in battle attracted to him men who were interested in fighting and who were willing to accept his religion as a condition of membership of his party, which soon began to assume a national form. Mahomet early found an excuse for attacking the Jews, who were naturally in the way of his schemes. The Bani Nadir were expelled, the Bani Quraiza slaughtered. By the time he had successfully stormed the rich Jewish town of Khaibar, he had found that it was better to allow industrious Jews to remain in Arabia as payers of tribute than to expel or kill them: this policy he followed afterwards. The capture of Mecca (630) was not only an evidence of his growing power, which induced Arabs throughout the peninsula to join him, but gave him a valuable centre of pilgrimage, in which he was able by a politic adoption of some of the heathen Arabian ceremonies into his own rites to win men over the more easily to his own cause. At his death in 623 Mahomet left Arabia practically unified. It is true that rival prophets were leading rebellions in various parts of Arabia, that the tax-collectors were not always paid, and that the warriors of the land were much distressed for want of work owing to the brotherhood of Arabs proclaimed by Mahomet. The tribes were a seething mass of restlessness, their old feuds ready to break out again. But they had realized that they had common interests. The power of the foreigner in Arabia was broken. Islam promised rich booty for those who fought and won, paradise for those who fell. Entry: HISTORY
CLEARCHUS, the son of Rhamphias, a Spartan general and condottiere. Born about the middle of the 5th century B.C., Clearchus was sent with a fleet to the Hellespont in 411 and became governor ([Greek: harmostês]) of Byzantium, of which town he was _proxenus_. His severity, however, made him unpopular, and in his absence the gates were opened to the Athenian besieging army under Alcibiades (409). Subsequently appointed by the ephors to settle the political dissensions then rife at Byzantium and to protect the city and the neighbouring Greek colonies from Thracian attacks, he made himself tyrant of Byzantium, and, when declared an outlaw and driven thence by a Spartan force, he fled to Cyrus. In the "expedition of the ten thousand" undertaken by Cyrus to dethrone his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, Clearchus led the Peloponnesians, who formed the right wing of Cyrus's army at the battle of Cunaxa (401). On Cyrus's death Clearchus assumed the chief command and conducted the retreat, until, being treacherously seized with his fellow-generals by Tissaphernes, he was handed over to Artaxerxes and executed (Thuc. viii. 8. 39, 80; Xen. _Hellenica_, i. 3. 15-19; _Anabasis_, i. ii.; Diodorus xiv. 12. 19-26). In character he was a typical product of the Spartan educational system. He was a warrior to the finger-tips ([Greek: polemikos kai philopolemos eschatôs]. Xen. _Anab._ ii. 6. 1), and his tireless energy, unfaltering courage and strategic ability made him an officer of no mean order. But he seems to have had no redeeming touch of refinement or humanity. Entry: CLEARCHUS
ARISTOPHANES, of Byzantium, Greek critic and grammarian, was born about 257 B.C. He removed early to Alexandria, where he studied under Zenodotus and Callimachus. At the age of sixty he was appointed chief librarian of the museum. He died about 185-180 B.C. Aristophanes chiefly devoted himself to the poets, especially Homer, who had already been edited by his master Zenodotus. He also edited Hesiod, the chief lyric, tragic and comic poets, arranged Plato's dialogues in trilogies, and abridged Aristotle's _Nature of Animals_. His arguments to the plays of Aristophanes and the tragedians are in great part preserved. His works on Athenian courtesans, masks and proverbs were the results of his study of Attic comedy. He further commented on the [Greek: Pinakes] of Callimachus, a sort of history of Greek literature. As a lexicographer, Aristophanes compiled collections of foreign and unusual words and expressions, and special lists (words denoting relationship, modes of address). As a grammarian, he founded a scientific school, and in his _Analogy_ systematically explained the various forms. He introduced critical signs--except the obelus; punctuation prosodiacal, and accentual marks were probably already in use. The foundation of the so-called Alexandrian "canon" was also due to his impulse (_Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol_., ed. 1906, i. 129 f.). Entry: ARISTOPHANES
The art of glass-making no doubt, like all other art, deteriorated during the decline of the Roman empire, but it is probable that it continued to be practised, though with constantly decreasing skill, not only in Rome but in the provinces. Roman technique was to be found in Byzantium and Alexandria, in Syria, in Spain, in Germany, France and Britain. Entry: FIG
2. CYRUS THE YOUNGER, son of Darius II. and Parysatis, was born after the accession of his father in 424. When, after the victories of Alcibiades, Darius II. decided to continue the war against Athens and give strong support to the Spartans, he sent in 408 the young prince into Asia Minor, as satrap of Lydia and Phrygia Major with Cappadocia, and commander of the Persian troops, "which gather into the field of Castolos" (Xen. _Hell._ i. 4. 3; _Anab._ i. 9. 7), i.e. of the army of the district of Asia Minor. He gave strenuous support to the Spartans; evidently he had already then formed the design, in which he was supported by his mother, of gaining the throne for himself after the death of his father; he pretended to have stronger claims to it than his elder brother Artaxerxes, who was not born in the purple. For this plan he hoped to gain the assistance of Sparta. In the Spartan general Lysander he found a man who was willing to help him, as Lysander himself hoped to become absolute ruler of Greece by the aid of the Persian prince. So Cyrus put all his means at the disposal of Lysander in the Peloponnesian War, but denied them to his successor Callicratidas; by exerting his influence in Sparta, he brought it about that after the battle of Arginusae Lysander was sent out a second time as the real commander (though under a nominal chief) of the Spartan fleet in 405 (Xen. _Hell._ ii. 1. 14). At the same time Darius fell ill and called his son to his deathbed; Cyrus handed over all his treasures to Lysander and went to Susa. After the accession of Artaxerxes II. in 404, Tissaphernes denounced the plans of Cyrus against his brother (cf. Plut. _Artax._ 3); but by the intercession of Parysatis he was pardoned and sent back to his satrapy. Meanwhile Lysander had gained the battle of Aegospotami and Sparta was supreme in the Greek world. Cyrus managed very cleverly to gather a large army by beginning a quarrel with Tissaphernes, satrap of Caria, about the Ionian towns; he also pretended to prepare an expedition against the Pisidians, a mountainous tribe in the Taurus, which was never obedient to the Empire. Although the dominant position of Lysander had been broken in 403 by King Pausanias, the Spartan government gave him all the support which was possible without going into open war against the king; it caused a partisan of Lysander, Clearchus, condemned to death on account of atrocious crimes which he had committed as governor of Byzantium, to gather an army of mercenaries on the Thracian Chersonesus, and in Thessaly Menon of Pharsalus, head of a party which was connected with Sparta, collected another army. Entry: 2
From Ireland the art was transferred to Byzantium, which is to be seen by the close resemblance of method, style, design and colour. The style and design changed in course of time, but the craft remained. It was at Byzantium that it flourished for several centuries. Entry: ENAMEL
In recent times an attempt has been made to reconcile the two accounts, by attributing to St Helena the rediscovery of the true cross, originally found by Protonice, and which had been buried again on the spot. A change was made in 1895 in the _Diario Romano_, when the word _Ritrovamento_ was substituted for that of _Invenzione_, in the name of the festival of the 3rd of May. After St Helena's discovery a church was built upon the site, and in it she placed the greater portion of the cross. The remaining portion she conveyed to Byzantium, and thence Constantine sent a piece to Rome, where it is said to be still preserved in the church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme, which was built to receive so precious a relic. It is exposed for the veneration of the faithful on Good Friday, 3rd of May, and the third Sunday in Lent, each year. Entry: CROSS
According to Zosimus, the line of the landward walls erected by Constantine to defend New Rome was drawn at a distance of nearly 2 m. (15 stadia) to the west of the limits of the old town. It therefore ran across the promontory from the vicinity of Un Kapan Kapusi (Porta Platea), at the Stamboul head of the Inner Bridge, to the neighbourhood of Daud Pasha Kapusi (Porta S. Aemiliani), on the Marmora, and thus added the 3rd and 4th hills and portions of the 5th and 7th hills to the territory of Byzantium. We have two indications of the course of these walls on the 7th hill. One is found in the name Isa Kapusi (the Gate of Jesus) attached to a mosque, formerly a Christian church, situated above the quarter of Psamatia. It perpetuates the memory of the beautiful gateway which formed the triumphal entrance into the city of Constantine, and which survived the original bounds of the new capital as late as 1508, when it was overthrown by an earthquake. The other indication is the name Alti Mermer (the six columns) given to a quarter in the same neighbourhood. The name is an ignorant translation of Exakionion, the corrupt form of the designation Exokionion, which belonged in Byzantine days to that quarter because marked by a column outside the city limits. Hence the Arians, upon their expulsion from the city by Theodosius I., were allowed to hold their religious services in the Exokionion, seeing that it was an extra-mural district. This explains the fact that Arians are sometimes styled Exokionitae by ecclesiastical historians. The Constantinian line of fortifications, therefore, ran a little to the east of the quarter of Alti Mermer. In addition to the territory enclosed within the limits just described, the suburb of Sycae or Galata, on the opposite side of the Golden Horn, and the suburb of Blachernae, on the 6th hill, were regarded as parts of the city, but stood within their own fortifications. It was to the ramparts of Constantine that the city owed its deliverance when attacked by the Goths, after the terrible defeat of Valens at Adrianople, A.D. 378. Entry: CONSTANTINOPLE
The term "Byzantine" is applied to the style of architecture which was developed in Byzantium after Constantine had transferred the capital of the Roman empire to that city in A.D. 324. Entry: BYZANTINE
After having withstood an attempt under Epaminondas to restore it to the Lacedaemonians, Byzantium joined with Rhodes, Chios, Cos, and Mausolus, King of Caria, in throwing off the yoke of Athens, but soon after sought Athenian assistance when Philip of Macedon, having overrun Thrace, advanced against it. The Athenians under Chares suffered a severe defeat from Amyntas, the Macedonian admiral, but in the following year gained a decisive victory under Phocion and compelled Philip to raise the siege. The deliverance of the besieged from a surprise, by means of a flash of light which revealed the advancing masses of the Macedonian army, has rendered this siege memorable. As a memorial of the miraculous interference, the Byzantines erected an altar to Torch-bearing Hecate, and stamped a crescent on their coins, a device which is retained by the Turks to this day. They also granted the Athenians extraordinary privileges, and erected a monument in honour of the event in a public part of the city. Entry: BYZANTIUM
Meanwhile, the regular drama had lingered on, enjoying in all its forms imperial patronage in the days of the literary revival under Hadrian (117-138); but the perennial taste for the spectacles of the amphitheatre, which was as strong at Byzantium as it was at Rome, and which reached its climax in the days of Constantine the Great (306-337), under whom the reaction set in, determined the downfall of the dramatic art. It was not absolutely extinguished even by the irruptions of the northern barbarians; but a bitter adversary had by this time risen into power. The whole authority of the Christian Church had, without usually caring to distinguish between the nobler and the looser elements in the drama, involved all its manifestations in a consistent condemnation (as in Tertullian's _De spectaculis_, 200 c.), comprehended them all in an uncompromising anathema. When the faith of that Church was acknowledged as the religion of the Roman empire, the doom of the theatre was sealed. It died hard, however, both in the capitals and in many of the provincial centres of East and West alike. At Rome the last mention of _spectacula_ as still in existence seems to date from the sway of the East-Goths under Theodoric and his successor, in the earlier half of the 6th century. In the capital and provinces of the Eastern empire the decline and fall of the stage cannot be similarly traced; but its end is authoritatively assigned to the period of Saracen invasions which began with the Omayyad dynasty in the 7th century. Entry: 9
Greek.---Athenaeus quotes 35 writers of works, known or supposed to be dictionaries, for, as they are all lost, it is often difficult to decide on their nature. Of these, Anticlides, who lived after the reign of Alexander the Great, wrote [Greek: Exêgêtikos], which seems to have been a sort of dictionary, perhaps explaining the words and phrases occurring in ancient stories. Zenodotus, the first superintendent of the great library of Alexandria, who lived in the reigns of Ptolemy I. and Ptolemy II., wrote [Greek: Glôssai], and also [Greek: Lexeis ethnikai], a dictionary of barbarous or foreign phrases. Aristophanes of Byzantium, son of Apelles the painter, who lived in the reigns of Ptolemy II. and Ptolemy III., and had the supreme management of the Alexandrian library, wrote a number of works, as [Greek: Attikai Lexeis, Lakônikai Glôssai] which, from the titles, should be dictionaries, but a fragment of his [Greek: Lexeis] printed by Boissonade, in his edition of Herodian (London, 1869, 8vo, pp. 181-189), is not alphabetical. Artemidorus, a pupil of Aristophanes, wrote a dictionary of technical terms used in cookery. Nicander Colophonius, hereditary priest of Apollo Clarius, born at Claros, near Colophon in Ionia, in reputation for 50 years, from 181 to 135, wrote [Greek: Glôssai] in at least three books. Parthenius, a pupil of the Alexandrian grammarian Dionysius (who lived in the 1st century before Christ), wrote on choice words used by historians. Didymus, called [Greek: chalkenteros], who, according to Athenaeus, wrote 3500 books, and, according to Seneca, 4000, wrote lexicons of the tragic poets (of which book 28 is quoted), of the comic poets, of ambiguous words and of corrupt expressions. Glossaries of Attic words were written by Crates, Philemon, Philetas and Theodorus; of Cretan, by Hermon or Hermonax; of Phrygian, by Neoptolemus; of Rhodian, by Moschus; of Italian, by Diodorus of Tarsus; of foreign words, by Silenus; of synonyms, by Simaristus; of cookery, by Heracleon; and of drinking vessels, by Apollodorus of Cyrene. According to Suidas, the most ancient Greek lexicographer was Apollonius the sophist, son of Archibius. According to the common opinion, he lived in the time of Augustus at Alexandria. He composed a lexicon of words used by Homer, [Greek: Lexeis Homêrikai], a very valuable and useful work, though much interpolated, edited by Villoison, from a MS. of the 10th century, Paris, 1773, 4to, 2 vols.; and by Tollius, Leiden, 1788, 8vo; ed. Bekker, Berlin, 1833, 8vo. Erotian or Herodian, physician to Nero, wrote a lexicon on Hippocrates, arranged in alphabetical order, probably by some copyist, whom Klein calls "homo sciolus." It was first published in Greek in H. Stephani _Dictionarium Medicum_, Paris, 1564, 8vo; ed. Klein, Lipsiae, 1865, 8vo, with additional fragments. Timaeus the sophist, who, according to Ruhnken, lived in the 3rd century, wrote a very short lexicon to Plato, which, though much interpolated, is of great value, 1st ed. Ruhnken, Leiden, 1754; ed. locupletior, Lugd. Bat. 1789, 8vo. Aelius Moeris, called the Atticist, lived about 190 A.D., and wrote an Attic lexicon, 1st ed. Hudson, Oxf. 1712, Bekker, 1833. Julius Pollux ([Greek: Ioulios Polydeukês]) of Naucratis, in Egypt, died, aged fifty-eight, in the reign of Commodus (180-192), who made him professor of rhetoric at Athens. He wrote, besides other lost works, an Onomasticon in ten books, being a classed vocabulary, intended to supply all the words required by each subject with the usage of the best authors. It is of the greatest value for the knowledge both of language and of antiquities. First printed by Aldus, Venice, 1500, fol.; often afterwards; ed. Lederlinus and Hemsterhuis, Amst. 1706, 2 vols.; Dindorf, 1824, 5 vols., Bethe (1900 f.). Harpocration of Alexandria, probably of the 2nd century, wrote a lexicon on the ten Attic orators, first printed by Aldus, Ven. 1503, fol.; ed. Dindorf, Oxford, 1853, 8vo, 2 vols. from 14 MSS. Orion, a grammarian of Thebes, in Egypt, who lived between 390 and 460, wrote an etymological dictionary, printed by Sturz, Leipzig, 1820, 4to. Helladius a priest of Jupiter at Alexandria, when the heathen temples there were destroyed by Theophilus in 389 or 391 escaped to Constantinople, where he was living in 408. He wrote an alphabetical lexicon, now lost, chiefly of prose, called by Photius the largest ([Greek: polystichôtaton]) which he knew. Ammonius, professor of grammar at Alexandria, and priest of the Egyptian ape, fled to Constantinople with Helladius, and wrote a dictionary of words similar in sound but different in meaning, which has been often printed in Greek lexicons, as Aldus, 1497, Stephanus, and separately by Valckenaer, Lugd. Bat. 1739, 4to, 2 vols., and by others. Zenodotus wrote on the cries of animals, printed in Valckenaer's _Ammonius_; with this may be compared the work of Vincentio Caralucci, _Lexicon vocum quae a brutis animalibus emittuntur_, Perusia, 1779, 12mo. Hesychius of Alexandria wrote a lexicon, important for the knowledge of the language and literature, containing many dialectic and local expressions and quotations from other authors, 1st ed. Aldus, Ven. 1514, fol.; the best is Alberti and Ruhnken, Lugd. Bat. 1746-1766, fol. 2 vols.; collated with the MS. in St Mark's library, Venice, the only MS. existing, by Niels Iversen Schow, Leipzig, 1792, 8vo; ed. Schmidt, Jena, 1867, 8vo. The foundation of this lexicon is supposed to have been that of Pamphilus, an Alexandrian grammarian, quoted by Athenaeus, which, according to Suidas, was in 95 books from [Epsilon] to [Omega]; [Alpha] to [Delta] had been compiled by Zopirion. Photius, consecrated patriarch of Constantinople, 25th December 857, living in 886, left a lexicon, partly extant, and printed with Zonaras, Lips. 1808, 4to, 3 vols., being vol. iii.; ed. Naber, Leidae, 1864-1865, 8vo, 2 vols. The most celebrated of the Greek glossaries is that of Suidas, of whom nothing is known. He probably lived in the 10th century. His lexicon is an alphabetical dictionary of words including the names of persons and places--a compilation of extracts from Greek writers, grammarians, scholiasts and lexicographers, very carelessly and unequally executed. It was first printed by Demetrius Chalcondylas, Milan, 1499, fol.; the best edition, Bernhardy, Halle, 1853, 4to, 2 vols. John Zonaras, a celebrated Byzantine historian and theologian, who lived in the 12th century, compiled a lexicon, first printed by Tittmann, Lips. 1808. 4to, 2 vols. An anonymous Greek glossary, entitled [Greek: Etymologikon mega], _Etymologicum magnum_, has been frequently printed. The first edition is by Musurus, Venitia, 1499, fol.; the best by Gaisford, Oxonii, 1848, fol. It contains many grammatical remarks by famous authorities, many passages of authors, and mythological and historical notices. The MSS. vary so much that they look like the works of different authors. To Eudocia Augusta of Makrembolis, wife of the emperors Constantine XI. and Romanus IV. (1059 to 1071), was ascribed a dictionary of history and mythology, [Greek: Iônia] (bed of violets), first printed by D'Ansse de Villoison, _Anecdota Graeca_, Venetiis, 1781, 4to, vol. i. pp. 1-442. It was supposed to have been of much value before it was published. Thomas, Magister Officiorum under Andronicus Palaeologus, afterward called as a monk Theodulus, wrote [Greek: Eklogai onomatôn Attikôn], printed by Callierges, Romae, 1517, 8vo: Papias, _Vocabularium_, Mediolani, 1476, fol.: Craston, an Italian Carmelite monk of Piacenza, compiled a Greek and Latin lexicon, edited by Bonus Accursius, printed at Milan, 1478, fol.: Aldus, Venetiis, 1497, fol.: Guarino, born about 1450 at Favora, near Camarino, who called himself both Phavorinus and Camers, published his _Thesaurus_ in 1504. These three lexicons were frequently reprinted. Estienne, _Thesaurus_, Genevae, 1572, fol., 4 vols.; ed. Valpy, Lond. 1816-1826, 6 vols. fol.; Paris, 1831-1865, 9 vols. fol., 9902 pages: [Greek: Kibôtos], the ark, was intended to give the whole language, ancient and modern, but vol. i., Constantinople, 1819, fol., 763 pages, [Alpha] to [Delta], only appeared, as the publication was put an end to by the events of 1821. ENGLISH.--Jones, London, 1823, 8vo: Dunbar, Edin. 3rd ed. 1850, 4to: Liddell and Scott, 8th ed. Oxford, 1897, 4to. FRENCH.--Alexandre, 12th ed. Paris, 1863, 8vo; 1869-1871, 2 vols: Chassang, ib. 1872, 8vo. ITALIAN.--Camini, Torino, 1865, 8vo, 972 pages: Müller, ib. 1871, 8vo. SPANISH.--_Diccionario manual, por les padres Esculapios_, Madrid, 1859, 8vo. GERMAN.--Passow, 5th ed. Leipzig, 1841-1857, 4to: Jacobitz and Seiler, 4th ed. ib. 1856, 8vo: Benseler, ib. 1859, 8vo: Pape, Braunschweig, 1870-1874, 8vo, 4 vols. Prellwitz, _Etymologisches Wörterbuch der griechischen Sprache_, new edition, 1906: Herwerden, _Lexicon Graecum suppletorium et dialecticum_, 1902. DIALECTS.--_Attic_: Moeris, ed. Pierson, Lugd. Bat. 1759. 8vo. _Attic Orators_: Reiske, Oxon. 1828, 8vo, 2 vols. _Doric_: Portus, Franckof. 1605, 8vo. _Ionic_: Id. ib. 1603, 8vo; 1817; 1825. PROSODY.--Morell, Etonae, 1762, 4to; ed. Maltby, Lond. 1830, 4to: Brasse, Lond. 1850, 8vo. RHETORIC.--Ernesti, Lips. 1795, 8vo. MUSIC.--Drieberg, Berlin, 1855. ETYMOLOGY.--Curtius, Leipzig, 1858-1862: Lancelot, Paris, 1863, 8vo. SYNONYMS.--Peucer, Dresden, 1766, 8vo: Pillon, Paris, 1847, 8vo. PROPER NAMES.--Pape, ed. Sengebusch, 1866, 8vo, 969 pages. VERBS.--Veitch, 2nd ed. Oxf. 1866. TERMINATIONS.--Hoogeveen, Cantab. 1810, 4to: Pape, Berlin, 1836, 8vo. PARTICULAR AUTHORS.--_Aeschylus_: Wellauer, 2 vols. Lips. 1830-1831, 8vo. _Aristophanes_: Caravella, Oxonii, 1822, 8vo. _Demosthenes_: Reiske, Lips. 1775, 8vo. _Euripides_: Beck, Cantab. 1829, 8vo. _Herodotus_: Schweighäuser, Strassburg, 1824, 8vo, 2 vols. _Hesiod_: Osoruis, Neapol. 1791, 8vo. _Homer_: Apollonius Sophista, ed. Tollius, Lugd. Bat., 1788, 8vo: Schaufelberger, Zürich, 1761-1768, 8vo, 8 vols.: Crusius, Hanover, 1836, 8vo: Wittich, London, 1843, 8vo: Döderlein, Erlangen, 8vo, 3 vols.: Eberling, Lipsiae, 1875, 8vo: Autenrieth, Leipzig, 1873, 8vo; London, 1877, 8vo. _Isocrates_: Mitchell, Oxon. 1828, 8vo. _Pindar_: Portus, Hanov. 1606, 8vo. _Plato_: Timaeus, ed. Koch, Lips. 1828, 8vo: Mitchell, Oxon. 1832, 8vo: Ast, Lips. 1835-1838, 8vo, 3 vols. _Plutarch_: Wyttenbach, Lips. 1835, 8vo, 2 vols. _Sophocles_: Ellendt, Regiomonti, 1834-1835, 8vo ed.; Genthe, Berlin, 1872, 8vo. _Thucydides_: Bétant, Geneva, 1843-1847, 8vo, 2 vols. _Xenophon_: Sturtz, Lips. 1801-1804, 8vo, 4 vols.: Cannesin (Anabasis, Gr.-Finnish), Helsirgissä, 1868, 8vo: Sauppe, Lipsiae, 1869, 8vo. _Septuagint_: Hutter, Noribergae, 1598, 4to: Biel, Hagae, 1779-1780, 8vo. _New Testament_: Lithocomus, Colon, 1552, 8vo: Parkhurst, ed. Major, London, 1845, 8vo: Schleusner (juxta ed. Lips. quartam), Glasguae, 1824, 4to. Entry: EUROPE